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9 December 2025

Achieving Sustainability in Life Satisfaction for Immigrant Adolescents: An Analysis of Leisure, Language, Family Environment, and School Adaptation Using Panel Data in South Korea

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Department of Leisure and Tourism Development, Kyonggi University, Seoul 03753, Republic of Korea
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Sustainability2025, 17(24), 10999;https://doi.org/10.3390/su172410999
This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Tourism Development and Economic Impacts: Insights into Tourist Behavior, Resident Engagement, Cultural Experiences, and Meeting, Incentive, Conference, and Exhibition Tourism
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Abstract

This study investigates how leisure activities influence life satisfaction among immigrant adolescents in South Korea, with a focus on the mediating role of school adaptation. Data from the 2nd Multicultural Youth Panel Survey (2019–2021) were used, comprising 465 observations across three consecutive years, with results averaged across three waves. Key predictors included the frequency of leisure activities, Korean language proficiency, and family environment. The findings indicate that these factors significantly contribute to adolescents’ life satisfaction, while school adaptation partially mediates these relationships. These results highlight the importance of meaningful leisure engagement and supportive family and school contexts in promoting well-being and social integration. The study provides evidence supporting policies that foster adolescent development, highlighting the need for sustainable educational and community support.

1. Introduction

The global population structure is rapidly changing, with declining fertility rates and an increasing elderly population [1]. South Korea recorded its lowest total fertility rate of 0.78 in 2022, contributing to a decrease in the working-age population and a growing labor shortage [2]. In response, the Korean government is promoting policies to address labor shortages, particularly in regions with population decline and labor-deficient industries, by encouraging foreign workers [3]. Consequently, the number of foreign residents in South Korea is steadily rising, transforming the country into a multicultural society [4]. In 2022, the number of foreign residents reached 2.5 million, making up 4.89% of the total population, showing a significant increase from previous years [5]. Specifically, the number of marriage immigrants continues to grow, with 181,436 in 2024 [6], reflecting South Korea’s adaptation to demographic changes and labor supply challenges.
Since marriage immigrants began to attract attention in Korean society in the mid-2000s, their employment rate has improved significantly over the past 20 years, providing a hopeful outlook for a multicultural society. However, despite the increase in the number of immigrants, negative perceptions of immigrants among Koreans still exist [7]. The social relationship between immigrants and Koreans is deepening over time [8]. In fact, according to the National Multicultural Family Survey, multicultural families are struggling with economic difficulties, language problems, loneliness, and childrearing [9], and the burden of childrearing and education is found to be great [10]. Accordingly, children and adolescents from multicultural families are experiencing more serious difficulties than children and adolescents from general families in terms of language limitations, identity confusion, peer relationship formation, and school life adaptation [11]. In other words, the reality is that multicultural families in South Korea are increasing, but they are not fully integrated into society. This social problem is especially serious among adolescents who entered the country in the middle of their lives [12,13,14]. Immigrant adolescents are those who grew up abroad and immigrated later in life, requiring them to adapt to a new culture [8]. Most of them have unstable residency status, and they often have difficulty settling into Korean society due to cultural differences, language barriers, and family circumstances [15,16]. As such, the problem of immigrant adolescents cannot be solved simply through their social adaptation efforts, so a more proactive and systematic approach is needed to expand the inclusive attitude toward multicultural adolescents.
Life satisfaction is a subjective emotion and a positive and optimistic attitude [17,18]. Life satisfaction during childhood and adolescence is important because it serves as the basis for children’s healthy development, success, and desirable life [19]. The transition from adolescence to adulthood is one of the most important transitions in life [20], and adolescence is a period of great physical, sexual, cognitive, emotional, and social change. Therefore, life satisfaction of adolescents is important not only in the present but also in the future, and even in terms of policies responsible for the sustainable development of a country. Therefore, it is a period when social systematic support and interest for life satisfaction are most required [21,22]. However, the life satisfaction of Korean adolescents is fairly low at 67% among OECD countries [23], and multicultural adolescents are more likely to experience various emotional and sentimental problems such as appropriate peer relationships, adaptation to school life, national identity confusion, and social withdrawal compared to non-multicultural adolescents, which results in more stress and accidents(Internalized problems such as inferiority complex and anxiety, and externalized problems such as violence and delinquency) [24,25,26]. To recognize and respond to these social problems, this study aims to systematically explore the inclusion of immigrants by identifying factors that affect the adaptation to the country of immigration and life satisfaction of adolescents from multicultural families who entered the country midway.
There are various variables that have a positive effect on life satisfaction, but leisure activities are known to be an important variable that affects the overall well-being of humans [27,28]. In fact, as the frequency or time of leisure activities increases, the meaning and autonomy of life can be secured, which has a positive effect on life satisfaction [29,30,31]. Leisure activities, especially, are considered important in childhood and adolescence because the lack of leisure can threaten the healthy growth and development of children and adolescents, which can continue to affect them until adulthood [32]. Although there are not many studies that have examined the relationship between leisure activities and life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents, various literature evidence suggests a relationship between leisure participation and life satisfaction of immigrants who entered the country midway. Similarly, according to previous studies, leisure activities play an important role in the mental and physical growth and development of multicultural adolescents, contributing to self-esteem and school adaptation [33,34].
Immigrant adolescents often have more difficulty adjusting to social life, so their social relationships can affect their life satisfaction [25,35]. This maladjustment leads to disadvantages, such as higher truancy rates, lower school belonging, and academic achievement compared to non-immigrant adolescents [13,14]. However, immigrant adolescents’ self-esteem and discrimination experiences are less negative when they develop competence and belonging in social relationships [36,37]. External factors like social support and cultural understanding, along with internal factors like self-efficacy and language ability, help alleviate problem behaviors [38]. In this context, social relationships in school and home environments affect psychosocial adaptation, and peer relationships significantly influence adolescence [39]. Immigrant adolescents’ identities are shaped by their relationships, and social relationships are especially important in their multi-layered identity formation [40,41].
Despite the important role that leisure activities and social relationships play in alleviating the above-mentioned problems of multicultural adolescents, research on life satisfaction and peer relationships among immigrant adolescents according to leisure activities is limited and has been conducted mainly from a cross-sectional perspective. Cross-sectional studies have limitations in ensuring the robustness of estimates because they rely on single time-point observations and cannot control for unobserved individual heterogeneity. On the other hand, utilizing accumulated panel data allows for more reliable analysis by aggregating multiple observations of the same individuals, thereby reducing measurement errors and providing stable estimates [42,43]. In this study, sustainability in life satisfaction is conceptualized not as a static outcome, but as a socially embedded and developmentally sustained condition of well-being. Drawing on the concept of social sustainability, sustainable well-being refers to an individual’s continued ability to maintain quality of life through stable access to social, educational, and cultural resources. In this context, life satisfaction is understood as a key subjective indicator of sustainable well-being, reflecting individuals’ continuous evaluation of their lived quality of life. For immigrant adolescents, this sustainability is closely linked to successful sociocultural integration, educational adaptation, and the accumulation of protective developmental assets. This theoretical stance explicitly aligns with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [44], particularly Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being), Goal 4 (Quality Education), and Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities) [45]. By identifying the structural factors that promote the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents, this research contributes to creating inclusive educational environments and reducing social inequalities, thereby supporting the long-term sustainability of multicultural societies [46]. Therefore, this study uses panel data to explore the structural factors affecting life satisfaction of adolescents from immigrant families—a pressing issue in multicultural families—and to confirm the function of leisure in this relationship. By exploring the influence of leisure activities on improving school adjustment and life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents using accumulated panel data, it is expected to contribute to a deeper understanding of their characteristics [47], and to provide important basic data for their better lives.

2. Background and Literature Review

2.1. Definition of the Concept of Immigrant Adolescents

The number of multicultural families in South Korea increased alongside the rise in international marriages during the 2000s. As of 2022, there were approximately 399,396 multicultural families in South Korea, steadily increasing from 299,241 households in 2015 [48]. The number of multicultural adolescents increased from 82,536 in 2015 to 181,178 in 2023, and the number of immigrant adolescents who entered South Korea during adolescence rose from 8697 in 2019 to 11,987 in 2024 [49]. This rise in international marriages and the growing number of children from multicultural families with diverse backgrounds have expanded social interest in adolescents with immigrant backgrounds. Consequently, the concepts of multicultural adolescents and immigrant adolescents are gradually becoming clearer in Korean society [50].
In South Korea, all adolescents born to international marriage families are referred to as multicultural adolescents, categorized as: (1) children born in South Korea to international marriage families, (2) children from foreign families, and (3) immigrant adolescents. Within this framework, immigrant adolescents are conceptualized as a subcategory of multicultural adolescents, specifically defined as adolescents born abroad who spent part of their childhood in their country of birth and migrated to South Korea during adolescence [51,52]. Internationally, however, such distinctions are rarely made, as multicultural adolescents are generally treated as a single unified group, and subcategories based on birthplace or migration experience are seldom distinguished. Furthermore, although the distinction of immigrant adolescents as a subcategory of multicultural adolescents is clear in South Korea, the definition of immigrant adolescents varies among government ministries [8,49,53]. However, the crucial distinction for this research lies in the experience of migration. Unlike multicultural adolescents born in South Korea, immigrant adolescents experience the migration process directly and must adapt to a new school system and culture during a sensitive developmental period. This distinction is theoretically critical because their life satisfaction is distinctively shaped by the immediate stress of acculturation and the disruption of social networks, necessitating a focused investigation into their specific adaptation factors. Considering this context, this study defines immigrant adolescents as a subcategory of multicultural adolescents and sets the research focus accordingly.
In this study, ‘multicultural adolescents’ is used as a general concept encompassing all adolescents from international marriage families. Among these, adolescents with an immigrant background are designated as ‘immigrant adolescents’. This refers to adolescents who were born overseas and migrated to South Korea during adolescence. Multicultural adolescents born in South Korea are defined as ‘multicultural adolescents without an immigrant background’. In other words, this study conceptualizes immigrant adolescents as children of international marriages who were born overseas and spent part of their childhood in their country of birth before entering the immigration destination (South Korea in this study). They are conceptualized as a minority group and considered the primary subjects of this study.

2.2. Life Satisfaction of Immigrant Adolescents

Life satisfaction refers to the cognitive degree of satisfaction with various areas as a subjective evaluation of one’s overall life [54,55]. Life satisfaction in adolescence is highly correlated with physical and psychological development and is important in that it can affect not only life after adulthood but also throughout the entire lifespan [54,56]. Life satisfaction is a significant factor in predicting negative psychological symptoms of multicultural adolescents who are experiencing psychological and social difficulties due to dual tasks and stress [57]. Adolescents with immigrant backgrounds are exposed to various visible and invisible discrimination [58], and the environment or situational variables that adolescents with immigrant backgrounds face can bring about differences in individual life satisfaction, so life satisfaction is considered an important measure [59]. Previous studies have shown that multicultural adolescents are negatively affected in life satisfaction due to social withdrawal due to the characteristics of a minority [60], social withdrawal due to fear of social relationships with others [61], and stress related to acculturation [62]. In fact, studies revealed that psychological conflicts experienced during the acculturation and settlement stages can cause identity confusion and affect life satisfaction [63,64]. In addition, adolescents belonging to a dual culture, such as children from multicultural families, are more likely to experience mental health problems such as anxiety and depression and social adaptation problems compared to non-multicultural families [65].
In particular, immigrant adolescents in South Korea face unique challenges due to the increasing number of multicultural families and children with diverse backgrounds. They must adapt not only to a new cultural and linguistic environment but also simultaneously experience normative developmental changes during adolescence. These difficulties can negatively affect academic achievement, peer relationships, emotional stability, and social identity formation [25,40,66]. Considering these distinctive experiences, focused research on immigrant adolescents is essential to understand how social, familial, and educational factors influence their life satisfaction and school adaptation. Based on the importance of identifying factors that affect the life satisfaction of multicultural adolescents, this study aims to investigate the factors that affect the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents and whether school adaptation, a school-related variable that reflects the characteristics of adolescents, has a mediating effect on life satisfaction.

2.3. Social Adaptation Factors on School Adjustment and Life Satisfaction of Immigrant Adolescents

2.3.1. Leisure Activities

Leisure activities are emphasized in various studies as a crucial factor in adolescent development, promoting personal growth and contributing to maintaining a healthy lifestyle [67]. Particularly, socialization through leisure activities during adolescence not only enhances academic achievement and emotional stability [68,69] but also positively impacts school life satisfaction [70]. Additionally, the studies revealed that short-term participation in physical activities contributes to fostering a positive attitude towards school life among adolescents [71,72]. Furthermore, the study confirmed that leisure activities are a factor that positively affects school adaptation [73]. In other words, leisure activities provide students with physical and mental vitality and play a significant role in inducing positive changes in various aspects of school life [74]. Multicultural adolescents, in particular, face difficulties in social adaptation or school life due to linguistic and cultural differences [75]; however, these issues can be overcome through interactions in leisure activities, which also positively influence solving school life problems [76]. Based on these research findings, the frequency of leisure activities among immigrant adolescents needs to be examined as an independent variable, considering its potential positive impact on school adaptation.

2.3.2. Language Proficiency

Language proficiency, defined as proficiency in the language of the host country, is a fundamental skill in forming relationships with others and plays a crucial role in adolescents’ adaptation to school life [77,78]. Particularly, the language proficiency of immigrant adolescents is interdependent with their social skills, and a lack of proficiency can lead to emotional and social problems [79]. In fact, when immigrant adolescents have insufficient language proficiency, they face difficulties in academic performance and class participation, which in turn leads to a decrease in confidence regarding school life [80]. They also experience challenges in forming peer relationships, negatively impacting their school adaptation [81]. Furthermore, language proficiency is closely related to self-esteem among immigrant adolescents in school, and higher proficiency positively affects their school adaptation [82]. A previous study identified that language proficiency positively influences school adaptation among immigrant adolescents living in South Korea, mediated by self-efficacy [83]. It was found that for immigrant adolescents in South Korea, language barriers serve as a major factor that hinders school adaptation, affecting not only academic achievement but also overall social relationships [84]. Therefore, this study aims to explore the relationship between language proficiency in South Korea and school adaptation among immigrant adolescents.

2.3.3. Family Environment

In general, the family environment is known to be the primary environment and the most important factor influencing the development and adaptation of children and adolescents [85], and environmental factors such as socioeconomic status have been shown to affect adolescents’ life satisfaction along with academic performance, school adaptation, self-esteem, and interpersonal relationships [86]. Since this socioeconomic status is applied in the same way to adolescents from multicultural families, it can be considered an important factor in understanding adolescents from multicultural families [87]. A previous study found that the socioeconomic status of parents is closely related to the adaptation of children from immigrant families [88]. Another study reported that the economic level of the family has a significant effect on the school adaptation of multicultural adolescents [89]. In addition, it was found that the learning ability, attitude, and peer relationships of immigrant adolescents show different lifestyles depending on socioeconomic background [90]. In this way, multicultural adolescents, including immigrant adolescents, are more affected by family circumstances than children from non-multicultural families, which in turn influences peer relationships and school adaptation. Therefore, in this context, this study aims to examine the relationship between family environment and school adaptation for immigrant adolescents. Specifically, in this study, family environment is defined as the adolescent’s subjective perception of their family’s economic status. This focuses on the material stability that serves as a fundamental environmental factor for immigrant adolescents’ adaptation.

2.4. Hypotheses

Based on the literature reviewed in Section 2.2 and Section 2.3, leisure activities, language proficiency, and family environment are considered important factors influencing the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents. In particular, previous studies have shown that school adaptation plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of these social adaptation factors on life satisfaction. Specifically, adolescents who frequently engage in leisure activities demonstrate higher language proficiency, and those who experience a supportive family environment are more likely to report higher levels of life satisfaction. Furthermore, school adaptation is expected to positively influence life satisfaction, while also serving as a mediator that explains how leisure activities, language proficiency, and family environment contribute to adolescents’ overall well-being. From a social sustainability perspective, the stable reproduction of well-being across the life course requires continuous access to key social and institutional resources. For immigrant adolescents, family environment constitutes the primary social foundation of sustainability, while language proficiency and school adaptation represent institutional and cultural mechanisms of sociocultural integration. Leisure, in turn, functions as a developmental asset that promotes both psychological well-being and social connectedness. Together, these factors form a sustainability-oriented developmental system rather than isolated predictors of life satisfaction. Based on this integrated sustainability framework, the present study hypothesizes that these factors exert both direct and indirect effects on immigrant adolescents’ life satisfaction. Theoretically, the causal ordering of this mediation model is grounded in developmental and socialization perspectives. Family environment and language proficiency function as foundational resources and antecedent conditions that shape adolescents’ everyday developmental contexts prior to their direct experiences within school. School adaptation, in turn, represents a proximal institutional outcome through which these resources are translated into daily adjustment processes [91]. Finally, life satisfaction is conceptualized as a more global indicator of subjective well-being resulting from the cumulative success of these adaptive experiences. Therefore, despite the cross-sectional nature of the present analysis, the proposed directional pathway from resources (leisure, language, and family environment) to adaptation (school), and ultimately to well-being (life satisfaction), is theoretically and developmentally plausible. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed.
H1: 
Leisure activities positively affect life satisfaction.
H2: 
Language proficiency positively affects life satisfaction.
H3: 
Family environment positively affects life satisfaction.
H4: 
School adaptation positively affects life satisfaction.
H5: 
School adaptation mediates the relationship between leisure activities and life satisfaction.
H6: 
School adaptation mediates the relationship between language proficiency and life satisfaction.
H7: 
School adaptation mediates the relationship between family environment and life satisfaction.

3. Methodology

3.1. Data Collection

This study analyzed data from the second cohort of the Multicultural Adolescent Panel Study (MAPS), conducted by the National Youth Policy Institute (NYPI) in South Korea. Unlike the first cohort, which focused exclusively on international marriage families, the second cohort includes adolescents from international marriage families, immigrant families, and foreign families. For this study, immigrant adolescents—defined as youths who migrated to South Korea during adolescence—were selected, using data from the first to third waves (2019–2021). The final sample comprised 465 participants.
Of these participants, 53.5% were male and 46.5% female. Ages ranged from 9 to 13 years at the first wave and 11 to 15 years at the third wave, capturing a critical developmental period of adolescence. Although this age range (9–13 years) is often classified as late childhood, it is also conceptualized as early adolescence in both the MAPS framework for migrant youth development [51] and multicultural youth development research [87]. Therefore, this study adopts this operational definition to capture the onset of developmental changes. Participants resided across various regions in South Korea, primarily in Gyeonggi/Incheon (41.1%), Gyeongsang (21.5%), Seoul (18.3%), Chungcheong/Gangwon (12.9%), and Jeolla/Jeju (6.2%). Data were collected via face-to-face interviews using Tablet PCs (Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing, CAPI) conducted by trained interviewers who visited the participants’ homes. The survey was provided in Korean, Chinese, and Vietnamese, allowing respondents to choose their preferred language.
The data used in this study are available upon request from the Multicultural Youth Panel Study, available at www.nypi.re.kr (accessed on 20 July 2024). Access to the data is granted following the submission of a data request form and approval from the relevant authorities, due to privacy and ethical restrictions. Ethical approval for the use of secondary data in this study was obtained from the [National Youth Policy Institute, NYPI] Institutional Review Board (IRB). As this study utilized publicly available secondary data, informed consent was not required.

3.2. Measurement of Variables

The variables used in this study are as shown in Table 1 and include social adaptation factors—leisure activities (LA), language proficiency (LP), and family environment (FE)—influence life satisfaction (LS), with school adaptation (SA) considered as a potential mediator. Sex (Sex), age (Age), and residence (Res) were included as control variables to account for demographic differences.
Table 1. Variable description.
The dependent variable, life satisfaction (LS), was measured using the average score of three items rated on a 4-point Likert scale from the MAPS 2nd cohort data (2019–2021). The mediator, school adaptation (SA), was measured using the average score of four items from the ‘school adaptation’ section in the MAPS 2nd cohort data, with higher scores indicating a higher level of school adaptation. These scores were used to analyze various factors affecting school adaptation. The independent variable, leisure activities (LA), was measured using data on the frequency of activities participated in with parents over the past year, rated on a 5-point scale (1 = Rarely, 2 = 1–3 times a month, 3 = 1–3 times a week, 4 = 4–6 times a week, 5 = Every day). Another independent variable, language proficiency (LP), was measured using data on speaking, writing, reading, and listening abilities in Korean, with the average score of these four items used in the study. Finally, the independent variable of family environment (FE) was measured using a 4-point Likert scale item assessing adolescents’ perceptions of their family’s economic situation.

3.3. Data Analysis

This study employed panel data regression analysis to investigate the impact of leisure activities and personal factors on the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents in South Korea, using data from the Multicultural Youth Panel Survey (2019–2021). Panel data methods were utilized to ensure the robustness of the estimates by controlling for unobserved individual heterogeneity. This approach allows for a more accurate examination of the structural relationships between variables beyond simple cross-sectional analysis.
The dependent variable was life satisfaction (LS), with leisure activities (LA), language proficiency (LP), and family environment (FE) as time-varying independent variables. Sex (Sex), age (Age), and region of residence (Res) were included as control variables.
The panel regression equation used is as follows:
L S i t = β 0 + β 1 L A i t + β 2 L P i t + β 3 F E i t + β 4 A g e i t + β 5 S e x i + β 6 R e s i + u i + ϵ i t
where i denotes individuals and, t denotes time. u i   represents the individual-specific random effect, and ϵ i t is the idiosyncratic error term.
To ensure statistical rigor, we conducted comprehensive model specification tests. First, the F-test and Breusch–Pagan Lagrange Multiplier (LM) test were performed to choose between Pooled OLS and panel models. Second, the Hausman test was conducted to select between Fixed Effects (FE) and Random Effects (RE) models. The test results consistently indicated that the RE model was the most suitable for this analysis. Furthermore, to address potential issues of heteroskedasticity and serial autocorrelation inherent in panel data, we applied cluster-robust standard errors at the individual level for all model estimations. This adjustment ensures valid statistical inference by correcting for non-independent errors within individuals over time.
To examine the mediating role of school adaptation, the study followed the procedure proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) and further employed the Sobel test to assess the statistical significance of the indirect effect [92]. It is important to note that because this study utilized time-aggregated panel data, the mediation analysis does not model a strictly confirmed temporal sequence. Instead, it tests theoretically assumed process relations grounded in developmental and social sustainability frameworks. This approach was adopted to examine stable structural associations among key variables rather than dynamic within-individual changes over time. Additionally, multicollinearity was checked using the variance inflation factor (VIF), and all analyses were conducted using Stata 18 with statistical significance set at the 5% level.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the variables. The total number of observations is 465, based on the integrated data from the 1st to 3rd waves of the MAPS second cohort (2019–2021). The average value of LS was 3.21 (SD = 0.59), and the average value of SA was 3.21 (SD = 0.50). In addition, the average value of LA was 2.88 (SD = 1.32), and the average value of LP was 4.04 (SD = 0.85), indicating relatively high language proficiency. The average value of FE was 3.08 (SD = 0.91).
Table 2. Descriptive statistics.
Table 3 shows the correlation coefficients among the variables. First, LS showed a positive correlation with LA (r = 0.30, p < 0.001) and LP (r = 0.19, p < 0.001), FE (r = 0.20, p < 0.001). LA showed a positive correlation with LP (r = 0.15, p < 0.01), FE (r = 0.17, p < 0.001). LP also showed a positive correlation with FE (r = 0.17, p < 0.001). These results indicate that adolescents with higher language proficiency and more favorable family environment tended to engage more frequently in leisure activities, and overall, these factors were positively associated with life satisfaction.
Table 3. Correlation matrix.

4.2. Results of Hypotheses Testing

Multiple regression analysis was conducted using panel data to examine the effects of independent variables (Leisure activities, language proficiency, family environment) and control variables (Sex, Age, Residence) on the dependent variable (Life satisfaction). Table 4 shows the results of the multiple regression analysis. Models 1–3 correspond to the OLS, FE, and RE models, respectively. Based on the Hausman test at the 99% significance level, the RE model was selected as the most appropriate. Looking at Model 3, LA (β = 0.098, p < 0.001), LP (β = 0.086, p < 0.001), and FE (β = 0.064, p < 0.05) were shown to have a positive effect on life satisfaction. In other words, leisure activities, language proficiency, and family environment all had a positive effect on improving the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents. Accordingly, all of the hypotheses of this study (Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2, and Hypothesis 3) were supported. Next, the control variable Sex (β = −0.187, p < 0.01) was shown to have a significant effect on life satisfaction, which means that the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents increases as the gender becomes male.
Table 4. Comparative Results of Panel Regression Models (OLS, RE, and FE) on Life Satisfaction.
Next, an analysis was conducted using the mediating effect analysis technique of Baron & Kenny [92] to determine whether SA plays a mediating role in the relationship between LA, LP, FE, and LS. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 5. In the first-stage verification, LA (β = 0.172, p < 0.001), LP (β = 0.107, p < 0.001), and FE (β = 0.070, p < 0.01) were found to have a significant effect on SA, and in the second-stage verification, LA (β = 0.113, p < 0.001), LP (β = 0.088, p < 0.01), and FE (β = 0.089, p < 0.01) were found to have a significant effect on LS. In the 3-step verification, the influence of LA (β = 0.113 → β = 0.084) and FE (β = 0.089 → β = 0.061) on LS decreased but remained significant. However, the effect of LP (β = 0.088 → β = 0.045) was no longer statistically significant (p > 0.05) after controlling for SA. Therefore, the results indicate that SA partially mediates the effects of LA and FE on LS, whereas it fully mediates the effect of LP on LS.
Table 5. Results of mediating effects (N = 463).
Finally, the Sobel test was conducted to verify the significance of the mediating effect. Using non-standardized path coefficients, mediation is considered statistically significant when the Z-value exceeds ±1.96 [92,93]. Looking at the results in Table 6, the mediating effect of LA on LS through SA (Z = 3.715, p < 0.001), the mediating effect of LP on LS through SA (Z = 3.617, p < 0.001), and the mediating effect of FE on LS through SA (Z = 2.677, p < 0.01) were all statistically significant. In conclusion, school adaptation significantly mediates the relationships between leisure activities, language proficiency, family environment, and life satisfaction.
Table 6. Results of mediating effects.

5. Discussion

The main purpose of this study is to examine the factors affecting the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents using the Multicultural Adolescents Panel Survey (MAPS), provided by the National Youth Policy Institute (NYPI), and to explore the influence of leisure on school adaptation and life satisfaction. This study was conducted using the Multicultural Adolescents Panel Survey (MAPS) from 2019 to 2021, and 465 data were ultimately used for analysis. The results of the analysis show that leisure activities, language proficiency, and family environment have a positive effect on the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents. This is consistent with previous studies showing that multicultural adolescents’ leisure activities [76], language proficiency [80,82,84], and family environment [87,89] affect life satisfaction. These findings also align with global indicators highlighting the critical role of social integration factors in immigrant students’ well-being [45]. It is worth noting that while the regression coefficient for family environment (FE) was relatively small (β = 0.064), its statistical significance underscores its role as a foundational factor. In developmental studies, background environmental factors often show smaller immediate effects compared to direct activity factors like leisure, yet they provide the essential stability required for other variables to function effectively. Looking at the coefficient size of the analysis results, leisure activities had the greatest effect on increasing the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents. This suggests that since leisure activities plays a central role in the immigrant adaptation issues related to immigrant adolescents, it is important to consider not only basic environment such as family environment and language proficiency but also leisure activities for the happy lives of immigrant adolescents. Next, the results of the mediation effect analysis showed that school adaptation had a partial mediation effect in the relationship between leisure activities, family environment, and life satisfaction. These results are consistent with the results of previous studies [68,69,70,73,74] that found that leisure activities have a positive effect on the school adaptation of multicultural adolescents. In the case of the relationship between language proficiency and life satisfaction, it was analyzed that there was a complete mediating effect. This mediating role of school adaptation is developmentally plausible. Adolescents’ foundational assets—such as family support, language competence, and leisure engagement—are typically formed prior to their daily adjustment experiences within the school context. These assets are then reflected in their level of school adaptation, which in turn is closely associated with their overall evaluative well-being. Thus, the observed mediation pattern is consistent with a theoretically grounded developmental process rather than a momentary psychological association. From a sustainability perspective, these findings indicate that immigrant adolescents’ life satisfaction is not sustained by a single factor, but by the dynamic interplay between structural conditions (family environment), developmental resources (leisure), and institutional adaptation (school adjustment and language proficiency). This supports the interpretation of life satisfaction as a socially and developmentally sustained outcome rather than a momentary psychological state, highlighting its implications for long-term social sustainability among immigrant adolescents [46].

6. Conclusions

6.1. Theoretical Implications

The theoretical significance of this study is as follows. First, this study confirmed that leisure activities, family environment, and language proficiency of immigrant adolescents have a positive effect on their school adaptation and life satisfaction, and the academic contribution of this study can be recognized in that it expanded the scope of the literature on immigrant life satisfaction and leisure. In other words, while previous studies on multicultural adolescents and leisure were conducted with multicultural family adolescents who were born abroad but grew up in their home country, this study investigated adolescents who grew up in their home country and entered the country while growing up, and thus experienced greater difficulties in social adaptation. Therefore, this study empirically verified the effects of leisure activities, language proficiency, and family environment on their school adaptation and life satisfaction by targeting immigrant adolescents, who have been increasing among multicultural adolescents, and expanded the scope of the literature on multicultural families and leisure. In particular, by empirically analyzing the factors influencing this group, this study provides a theoretical basis for discussing the conditions necessary for the sustainability of their adaptation and long-term well-being, not just initial settlement.
Second, this study ensures academic contribution by utilizing robust standard error and panel data to derive reliable results. Unlike cross-sectional data, which captures data at a specific point in time, panel data reflects complex relationships and the unique characteristics of individuals, allowing for a more accurate understanding of the causal relationships between variables. This methodological choice is theoretically significant as it is uniquely suited to capture the stable and cumulative factors that underpin ‘sustainable’ life satisfaction, moving beyond the static snapshot of cross-sectional studies. In addition, by applying robust standard errors, it is significant that robust analysis results are secured by considering the underestimation of standard errors and heteroscedasticity problems that may occur in panel data analysis [94,95].
Third, this study laid the foundation for a more multidimensional approach by examining the mediating effects of school adaptation on the relationships between variables and the direct impact on life satisfaction. While previous studies have tended to focus on the effects of individual variables using panel data, this study analyzes the mediating role of school adaptation in the relationship between the leisure activities, language proficiency, family environment, and life satisfaction. The findings of this study provide a theoretical basis for understanding school adaptation among immigrant adolescents and contribute to suggesting practical and comprehensive support measures. Theoretically, this mediation model suggests that school adaptation is not merely an outcome, but a critical mechanism through which the positive effects of leisure, language, and family are channeled to build ‘sustainable’ life satisfaction. It provides a more nuanced framework for how long-term well-being is constructed and maintained. Ultimately, this study articulates a distinct empirical contribution to sustainability literature by validating that ‘sustainable well-being’ for immigrant adolescents is not a static trait, but a dynamic outcome constructed through the cumulative interplay of ecological assets and institutional adaptation.

6.2. Practical Implications

The policy implications of this study are as follows. First, it is most important for the government to invest in leisure welfare aspects that can increase the frequency of leisure for immigrant adolescents. Research results show that the leisure activities for immigrant adolescents is a strong factor explaining life satisfaction. Therefore, it is necessary to provide leisure programs that reflect multicultural characteristics in the local community so that immigrant adolescents can easily access and actively participate. For example, by supporting sports clubs, art workshops, and cultural exchange programs in which adolescents from various cultural backgrounds can participate together, an environment in which adolescents can feel a sense of belonging and form social networks should be created. From a ‘sustainability’ perspective, these programs must be designed not as short-term interventions, but as ‘sustainable’, community-embedded infrastructures that provide continuous opportunities for engagement. Such leisure programs provide opportunities for adolescents to participate in the community and can be an important way to simultaneously promote the improvement in the quality of life and social integration of immigrant adolescents.
Second, to improve the life satisfaction of immigrant adolescents, residence-country language education is essential for their academic and social adaptation. According to previous studies, language proficiency is an important factor in forming and maintaining social relationships among multicultural adolescents and is closely related to their social adaptation [77,78]. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically provide customized residence-country language education programs for multicultural adolescents in schools where adolescents stay the longest. For example, through level-based curricula and mentoring programs, not only academic support but also social support networks can be strengthened to help immigrant adolescents adapt to school and society without problems. The policy implication here points toward sustainable educational models. This means creating an ongoing, integrated system within schools that supports language acquisition throughout their academic journey, ensuring that proficiency becomes a lasting asset that empowers adolescents to continuously build social relationships.
Third, financial support is essential for improving the quality of life and social integration of immigrant adolescents. According to previous studies, multicultural adolescents are greatly influenced by the socioeconomic background of their families [89], and especially in the case of immigrant backgrounds, the economic status of their parents plays an important role in social adaptation [88]. The subjective economic status of their families as perceived by adolescents affects opportunities for academics, leisure activities, etc., which ultimately directly affects their life satisfaction. From a practical perspective, the results of this study suggest that improvements in the family environment may yield modest short-term gains in life satisfaction, but they remain critically important as a long-term structural condition for sustaining immigrant adolescents’ well-being. Therefore, it is important to provide opportunities for diverse experiences through customized financial support that takes into account the family situation and educational level of immigrant adolescents, such as leisure activity support funds. This aligns with a sustainability goal by aiming to break cycles of socioeconomic disadvantage. This support should be viewed as an investment to ensure ‘sustainable’ access to the very resources (leisure, education) that this study identifies as crucial for long-term well-being, creating a stable foundation for immigrant adolescents to build their own life satisfaction.

6.3. Limitations

This study has the following limitations. First, the sample size is constrained due to the focus on immigrant adolescents, a minority group. Additionally, the relatively short duration of research on immigrant adolescents has resulted in limited accumulated data. Therefore, it is necessary to collect a diverse sample in subsequent studies, and to analyze the impact of immigrant adolescents on life satisfaction more specifically through long-term exploration. Second, although this study utilized three waves of panel data, the variables were aggregated across waves to construct time-averaged measures. As a result, the present analysis does not capture within-individual changes or temporal dynamics. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted as reflecting stable associative patterns rather than true longitudinal causal effects. Future research should apply longitudinal modeling approaches such as growth curve models or fixed-effects models to more rigorously examine developmental changes over time.

Author Contributions

H.M.: Conceptualization and design of the study, methodology, Data curation, data analysis and interpretation, writing and editing of the manuscript. W.S.L.: Supervision of the study design, and project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by Kyonggi University research grant 2025.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical approval for the use of secondary data in this study was obtained from the [National Youth Policy Institute, NYPI] Institutional Review Board (IRB). The approval numbers for each year of data used are as follows: [201904-HR-Unique-002-01], [202009-HR-Unique-011], and [202104-HR-Unique-005]. As this study utilized publicly available secondary data, informed consent was not required.

Data Availability Statement

The data used in this study are available upon request from the Multicultural Youth Panel Study, available at www.nypi.re.kr (accessed on 20 July 2024). Access to the data is granted following the submission of a data request form and approval from the relevant authorities, due to privacy and ethical restrictions.

Acknowledgments

This work utilized the “Multicultural Youth Panel Survey 2nd Data (MAPS 2nd)” conducted by the Korea Youth Policy Institute.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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