A Triple-Bottom-Line Performance Measurement Model for the Sustainability of Post-Mining Landscapes in Indonesia

Abstract

Indonesia’s post-mining landscapes require an integrated governance approach to achieve equitable and sustainable reclamation. This study developed and evaluated the TILANG Framework (Triple-Bottom-Line Integrated Land Governance) as a multidimensional model that aligns ecological restoration, community empowerment, and institutional accountability. Based on a meta-synthesis of 773 academic and institutional remarks coded using NVivo 12, the study identified sustainable cacao agriculture as a viable compensation mechanism that supports livelihood recovery while restoring degraded land. The framework draws on six foundational theoretical components—Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Stakeholder Theory, Legitimacy Theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Triple Bottom Line, and multi-level governance—and is operationalized through six implementation principles: Trust, Inclusivity, Legitimacy, Alignment, Norms, and Governance. The findings support performance-based land reclamation by embedding behavioral readiness and institutional co-financing into sustainability strategies. This model is particularly relevant to Indonesia’s ongoing land-use transformation, where post-extractive zones are shifting toward agroecological and community-centered recovery. The study found that (1) reframing land compensation as a restorative, performance-based mechanism enables more legitimate and inclusive post-mining governance; (2) sustainable cacao agriculture represents a viable and socially accepted strategy for ecological recovery and rural livelihood revitalization; and (3) the TILANG Framework advances land-use transformation by integrating corporate responsibility, behavioral readiness, and multi-level governance into a cohesive performance model.

1. Introduction

The rapid expansion of urban infrastructure and extractive industries—particularly mining—has significantly degraded productive agricultural land in Indonesia, posing serious risks to national food security and environmental resilience. Indonesia loses approximately 60,000–100,000 ha of cropland annually—equating to a five-year rice production reduction of nearly 2.4 million tonnes [1]. Simultaneously, regions such as Sulawesi, Kalimantan, and West Nusa Tenggara are experiencing post-mining ecological degradation, soil destabilization, and socio-economic exclusion [2,3].

As a response, integrated land-use strategies that combine rehabilitation, livelihood recovery, and ecological productivity have gained increasing attention. One promising option is cacao-based agroforestry. Theobroma cacao, a deep-rooted perennial, thrives well in marginal soils, improves biodiversity, and strengthens soil health while generating stable incomes for smallholder farmers. Indonesia’s global prominence as the top three cacao producer supports the feasibility of this strategy [4,5,6]. An analysis of 773 literature-derived remarks in this study confirms cacao’s suitability for post-mining land use. These remarks consistently affirm cacao’s role in ecological restoration and its capacity to support rural livelihoods. Evidence shows that cacao cultivation helps rehabilitate vegetation and provides economic stability for local communities [7]. The crop’s cultural familiarity, minimal input requirements, and alignment with traditional farming practices further enhance its social acceptability [8].

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has also emerged as a critical institutional mechanism for supporting sustainability in post-mining zones. Mining companies in Indonesia are increasingly expected to fund ecological restoration and socio-economic recovery through CSR programs, beyond their legal obligations [9,10]. When aligned with community needs and implemented transparently, CSR programs can support infrastructure, vocational training, and alternative livelihoods. Conversely, their absence often results in environmental neglect and social dislocation [11].

This study uses Stakeholder Theory and Legitimacy Theory to understand the governance conditions necessary for successful reclamation. Stakeholder Theory highlights collaborative roles between companies, communities, and government actors [12,13], while Legitimacy Theory emphasizes that public trust in institutions and their perceived credibility are essential for sustaining long-term support, compliance, and continuity in reclamation projects [14]. Research from South Kalimantan illustrates that participatory planning, responsiveness, and cultural adaptation play a decisive role in building legitimacy and enhancing reclamation outcomes [15].

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) complements these insights by examining how smallholder cacao farmers decide to adopt sustainable cacao farming. The TPB holds that behavior is influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control [16]. In Indonesian rural settings, social networks, labor availability, and perceived livelihood gains are powerful motivators for agroforestry adoption [17]. These findings support the inclusion of behavioral analysis in sustainability modeling.

Government agencies play complementary but often fragmented roles in post-mining land governance. The Ministry of Forestry enforces restoration standards, while the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (ESDM) monitors mine closure compliance. The Ministry of Agriculture supports land conversion through fertility mapping, agroforestry promotion, and extension services [18,19]. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry advocates for integrated approaches to land rehabilitation and climate resilience [20]. Despite these overlapping mandates, policy implementation remains disjointed due to gaps in coordination and institutional accountability. Recognizing these challenges, this study adopted the Triple-Bottom-Line (TBL) framework to evaluate sustainability outcomes across environmental, social, and economic dimensions [21,22]. The framework is supported by over 200 literature-based references and incorporates measures such as soil health, female farmer participation, and income diversification. Its adaptability makes it especially suitable for capturing the nuances of cacao-based reclamation [23].

This study serves a dual purpose. First, it introduces a performance measurement model rooted in the TBL framework that integrates Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices, institutional dynamics, and behavioral drivers. The model is positioned as a strategic response to Indonesia’s land-use transitions amid industrial and decentralization pressures. Second, it reframes cacao cultivation not merely as an environmental sustainability tool but also as a compensatory mechanism for land loss and a catalyst for rural transformation. By linking ecological recovery with economic opportunity and trust building, the model promotes sustainable governance. Embedding TBL indicators within a framework informed by CSR, TPB, and stakeholder engagement makes it replicable and actionable in other post-mining regions.

Indonesia provides a particularly urgent and illustrative case for post-mining sustainability due to its vast mineral wealth, decentralized governance, and rapid land-use transformation. As the world’s largest producer of nickel—a strategic mineral for the clean energy transition—Indonesia faces intensifying pressure to balance industrial development with environmental recovery and social justice [24]. The reclamation of post-mining landscapes has become central to national debates on food security, climate resilience, and community empowerment, especially in Sulawesi, where agroforestry models are being scaled up as viable post-extractive livelihood solutions. These characteristics make Indonesia not only a compelling site for grounded analysis but also a representative model for broader sustainability challenges in the Global South.

Indonesia’s post-mining regions—particularly in Sulawesi—face an urgent intersection of environmental degradation, institutional fragmentation, and socio-economic displacement. Despite regulatory frameworks mandating reclamation, implementation on-the-ground implementation remains inconsistent, often hindered by overlapping mandates and limited coordination among key agencies such as the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (ESDM), the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (KLHK), and the Ministry of Agriculture. In response to these governance gaps, several districts—Kolaka, Konawe, and Morowali—have begun piloting cacao-based agroforestry as an adaptive land recovery strategy, supported by community-driven CSR models and agroecological initiatives [25]. These localized innovations offer more than ecological benefits; they illustrate how integrated approaches to performance, trust, and participation can inform broader policy reform. Drawing from these insights, this study sets out to develop the TILANG Framework (Triple-Bottom-Line Integrated Land Governance)—a performance-based model designed to align stakeholder trust, institutional legitimacy, and behavioral readiness in the governance of post-mining land [26].

The core innovation of this research lies in framing cacao cultivation as a deliberate, strategic policy instrument—one that compensates for systemic agricultural land loss while advancing community legitimacy and sustainability. This reconceptualization expands the scope of land reclamation from simple ecological restoration to regenerative development. Ultimately, the study aims to offer both a conceptual roadmap and practical tools for governments, CSR actors, and development practitioners. Grounded in 773 literature-derived qualitative remarks coded using Nvivo 12 software, this study synthesizes multi-level stakeholder perspectives to inform the development of a performance measurement model for sustainable post-mining land reclamation.

2. Materials and Methods

This study employs a theory-driven qualitative meta-synthesis to develop a performance measurement model for sustainable cacao-based land reclamation in post-mining areas. Drawing on 773 literature-derived remarks, the methodology integrated five conceptual frameworks—CSR, Stakeholder Theory, Legitimacy Theory, TPB, and the Triple Bottom Line (TBL)—to guide both coding and model construction. A structured analytical process using NVivo software enabled thematic consistency across 10 parent nodes and 80 child codes, while the conceptual framework provided a bridge between institutional inputs, behavioral drivers, and sustainability outcomes. Together, these methods establish a rigorous foundation for synthesizing qualitative data into a practical, theoretically grounded model.

2.1. Study Design and Research Approach

This study draws particular attention to post-mining districts in Southeast Sulawesi, including Kolaka, Konawe, and Morowali, where emerging cacao-based land reclamation initiatives have begun to take shape. These efforts reflect early-stage pilots by local governments, CSR programs, and non-profit initiatives aiming to integrate agroforestry and cacao cultivation into post-mining rehabilitation strategies. For example, cocoa revitalization in Kolaka and East Kolaka has been supported through agroforestry pilot programs involving thousands of farmers and the planting of tens of thousands of trees [25]. Additionally, existing CSR initiatives—such as those by PT IMIP in Bahodopi, Morowali—have begun to introduce agroforestry and community-based empowerment models, underscoring the institutional momentum behind sustainable land use [26].

This study was designed as a qualitative meta-synthesis, integrating literature and institutional insights to develop a performance measurement framework for sustainable post-mining land governance. The approach was selected to enable the identification of conceptual patterns from a wide range of data sources—including academic articles, regulatory documents, policy briefs, and CSR reports—focused on land-use transformation in Indonesia’s post-mining landscapes.

Rather than conducting primary interviews or field experiments, the study synthesized 773 qualitative remarks derived from secondary materials that reflect expert perspectives, institutional guidelines, and scholarly evaluations. The aim was to capture not only formal policy discourses but also emerging grassroots narratives, particularly those related to sustainable cacao agriculture and stakeholder collaboration.

This design was rooted in the interpretive logic of the TILANG Framework (Triple-Bottom-Line Integrated Land Governance), which integrates Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Stakeholder Theory, and Legitimacy Theory. These theoretical foundations shaped the thematic direction of the coding structure and ensured that the synthesis remained conceptually grounded and policy relevant.

By focusing on how sustainability performance can be measured across ecological, social, and economic dimensions, this research approach aims to bridge the gap between theoretical modeling and institutional practice in post-mining land recovery.

2.2. Data Sources and Selection Criteria

The primary dataset consists of 773 synthesized remarks, drawn from 1235 academic and institutional sources published between 1956 and 2024. These sources include peer-reviewed journal articles, dissertations, books, and government or NGO reports accessed through platforms such as Scopus, Google Scholar, SpringerLink, and various national repositories. Each remark was treated as a synthesized finding or key recommendation representing one source and collected over a 28-month period (December 2022 to March 2025). All remarks were stored in a relational MS Access database structured across four linked tables (Journal, Circulation, Article, DetailedStudy). The remark dataset was verified by paragraph count, ensuring exactly 773 unique entries.

A two-level node structure was applied, comprising 10 parent nodes with exactly 8 child nodes each, totaling 80 child codes. This uniform coding architecture ensured thematic balance and allowed for systematic cross-comparison across key sustainability dimensions including institutional roles, behavioral drivers, and performance outcomes.

In this study, each remark is treated as a qualitative response unit—analogous to an interview excerpt—providing insights into diverse institutional and academic viewpoints. The remarks were imported into NVivo 12 for analysis using a two-level node structure: 10 parent nodes and 80 child nodes (8 per parent). Keywords associated with each child node were used in NVivo’s synonym-enabled search function to perform initial auto-coding. Manual verification and correction ensured alignment between NVivo’s search reports and the actual references coded. When keyword searches yielded zero hits, alternative phrasings were applied (e.g., replacing “community-led reclamation” with “participatory reclamation” and other variants). This refined and iterative coding process ensured comprehensive thematic coverage and high accuracy across all 773 remarks.

2.3. Conceptual Research Framework

A conceptual research framework underpins this study. CSR serves as the organizational entry point and channels into three primary theoretical mediators—Stakeholder Theory, Legitimacy Theory, and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). These mediate the operationalization of sustainability practices via the Triple Bottom Line (TBL), which in turn supports to the intended transformation outcome: Sustainable Cacao Agriculture on post-mining land.

This model encapsulates the theoretical alignment between institutional inputs, behavioral change mechanisms, and ecological–economic objectives. The conceptual framework integrates CSR (as the organizational foundation), TBL (as a sustainability enabler), Stakeholder and Legitimacy Theories (as behavioral and institutional mediators), and Sustainable Cacao Agriculture (as the transformation goal). Each theory informed the coding scheme in NVivo and guided thematic analysis. Stakeholder Theory emphasizes inclusive engagement; Legitimacy Theory highlights trust and social alignment; the TPB clarifies how behavioral intention, perceived control, and social norms shape farmer behavior. These mediating theories support the translation of CSR commitments into measurable sustainability outcomes. The model reflects with sustainable development principles, connecting ecological restoration with community empowerment through cacao farming.

Figure 1 presents the conceptual research framework. To further refine and validate the conceptual research framework, this study adopted a synthesis methodology influenced by the meta-ethnographic approach of Noblit and Dwight [27], combined with the abductive reasoning and theory-driven approach proposed by Collins and Stockton [28]. The Noblit framework emphasizes interpretive translation—wherein key concepts from one study are reinterpreted in the context of others—allowing themes and constructs to be reciprocally translated into a coherent whole. In this tradition, the framework is developed through seven interpretive phases: (1) Getting started, (2) Selecting relevant studies, (3) Reading the studies, (4) Determining how the studies are related, (5) Translating the studies into one another, (6) Synthesizing translations, and (7) Expressing the synthesis. Anchored in Collins and Stockton’s [28] view that theory permeates all stages of qualitative research—from epistemological stance to analytic coding—the final coding structure is explicitly linked to the study’s theoretical lens. The ten parent nodes thus represent the outcome of both “reciprocal translation” and theoretically informed reasoning, embedding conceptual coherence within an abductive and iterative process of framework development.

Alternatively, this process can be framed wholly within the abductive synthesis tradition of Timmermans and Tavory [29], which bridges the theoretical lens and empirical reality by guiding the reconfiguration of preliminary ideas when confronted with new or dissonant data. Through repeated comparison and reflection, a refined framework was developed that not only remained loyal to the theoretical propositions but also resonated with the patterns and anomalies identified through coding. Together, these approaches enabled the conceptual framework to evolve organically as both a diagnostic and strategic tool.

The Integration of these two perspectives ensured that the conceptual framework was neither imposed nor overly abstract, but rather emerged from the systematic translation of theory into actionable themes and categories. The choice to define eight child nodes under each of the ten parent nodes was both a strategic and methodological decision grounded in the principle of thematic saturation, conceptual granularity, and analytical tractability. As Linneberg and Koorsgard [30] emphasize, effective coding structures require a balance between comprehensiveness and manageability, particularly when seeking to maintain transparency and rigor in qualitative data analysis. Organizing coding structures with a moderate number of subnodes allows researchers to navigate the tension between inductive detail and deductive structure—ensuring both depth and focus across themes. The number eight thus aligns with the practical goal of facilitating systematic cross-case comparison while minimizing analytical fragmentation. Academically, it draws from guidance that promotes clarity and coherence in qualitative coding hierarchies to enhance the reliability and interpretability of findings [31,32].

The following academic rationales support the application of eight child nodes for each parent theme:

• Behavioral Change (TPB): Captures the TPB’s key constructs (attitudes, norms, control, intentions) and related behavioral drivers such as peer influence and risk perception. This allows full exploration of sustainability behavior adoption in farming contexts [33,34].
• CSR Role and Governance: Reflects operational and ethical dimensions of CSR, including planning, monitoring, transparency, and legitimacy, aligned with stakeholder theory and long-term sustainability expectations [35,36,37].
• Economic Revitalization: Includes themes such as rural entrepreneurship, value chains, diversification, and risk mitigation—all central to post-mining economic development [38,39].
• Environmental Restoration: Represents practices like reforestation, erosion control, biodiversity recovery, and soil rehabilitation, grounded in restoration ecology and agroecological principles [40,41,42].
• Farmer Empowerment: Emphasizes inclusive capacity building through training, leadership, youth involvement, and gender equity—consistent with empowerment and participatory development frameworks [43,44].
• Institutional Role: Covers governance mechanisms such as regulation, coordination, extension, and institutional legitimacy, as informed by institutional theory [45,46].
• Land Compensation Strategy: Encapsulates justice-based land redistribution, legal land-return frameworks, and environmental reparation policies grounded in equity and environmental justice literature [47,48].
• Stakeholder Collaboration: Focuses on participatory processes, benefit-sharing, cross-sector coordination, and negotiation mechanisms rooted in collaborative governance models [49,50]
• Sustainable Cacao Agriculture: Reflects agroecological, technical, and institutional dimensions of cacao-based systems as viable post-mining land use solutions [51,52,53].
• Triple-Bottom-Line Outcome: Includes sustainability performance indicators across environmental, economic, and social dimensions, aligned with the TBL framework [54].

The thematic depth provided by eight subcategories ensures that each parent domain—such as behavioral change or institutional roles—is explored through nuanced, empirically observable practices. Moreover, this approach facilitates consistent replication in future qualitative studies that aim to apply this model to other post-extractive landscapes. To operationalize this framework, the study established a total of 10 parent nodes—each representing a key dimension of post-mining sustainability—and 80 child nodes that capture specific institutional practices, governance mechanisms, behavioral factors, and environmental outcomes related to sustainable cacao-based reclamation. These 80 child nodes reflect a comprehensive coding taxonomy that enabled both thematic analysis and performance model design. The complete list and structure of all parent and child nodes are provided in Appendix A (

Table A1. NVivo Parent Nodes and Conceptual Definitions.

Parent Node	Explanation
Behavioral Change (TPB)	Captures psychological and behavioral factors influencing farmers’ willingness to adopt cacao farming, based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB).
Land Compensation Strategy	Refers to mechanisms for addressing agricultural land loss, particularly strategies that use cacao as a compensatory and sustainable land-use option.
CSR Role and Governance	Encompasses how mining firms deliver Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives aligned with community needs, and the governance structures that oversee them.
Triple-Bottom-Line Outcome	Represents sustainability outcomes across environmental, social, and economic pillars, including indicators and measurement frameworks.
Economic Revitalization	Focuses on economic recovery efforts through cacao farming, job creation, market integration, and livelihood diversification in post-mining communities.
Environmental Restoration	Refers to ecological interventions such as soil recovery, reforestation, biodiversity enhancement, and climate adaptation through agroforestry.
Institutional Role	Involves the contributions of government bodies, policies, technical agencies, and regulatory institutions in facilitating sustainable reclamation.
Farmer Empowerment	Covers strategies for increasing farmer agency, capacity, access to resources, representation, and gender inclusion in reclamation initiatives.
Stakeholder Collaboration	Describes the role of multi-actor cooperation, community engagement, and participatory planning in designing and implementing land-use strategies.
Sustainable Cacao Agriculture	Addresses agronomic practices, systems design, innovation, and quality standards specific to cacao-based agroforestry on reclaimed land.

) and Appendix B (

Table A2. NVivo Child Nodes Organized by Parent Theme.

Parent Node	Child Nodes
Behavioral Change (TPB)	Attitudes toward Sustainability, Behavioral Intention, Community Readiness, Peer Influence, Perceived Behavioral Control, Risk Perception, Self Efficacy and Motivation, Subjective Norms
Land Compensation Strategy	Community Rights and Access, Compensation Planning, Eligibility Criteria, Land-use Reclassification, Legal Frameworks for Land Return, Mine Closure Requirements, Reforestation and Revegetation, Soil Rehabilitation Measures
CSR Role and Governance	Community Inclusion in CSR, Compensation Planning, CSR Planning Mechanisms, CSR Transparency and Report, Legitimacy and Social License, Multiyear CSR Programs, Private–Public CSR Coordination, Regulatory Alignment
Triple-Bottom-Line Outcome	Economic Impact Indicators, Ecosystem Services, Employment Generation, Environmental Impact Metrics, Income Improvement, Long-term Sustainability Value, Social Development Outcomes, Soil Health Indicators
Economic Revitalization	Cacao-based Enterprise Models, Cooperative Business Systems, Economic Diversification, Economic Risk Management, Market Access Opportunities, Price Stability, Processing and Packaging Industries, Rural Entrepreneurship
Environmental Restoration	Agroecological Transition, Biodiversity Reintroduction, Erosion Control Strategies, Microbial Activity Restoration, Organic Matter Enhancement, Revegetation Practices, Slope Stabilization, Top Soil Replacement
Institutional Role	Capacity-building Programs, Extension Services, Government Coordination, Institutional Legitimacy, Land Policy Enforcement, Local Governance Involvement, Multi-agency Collaboration, Regulatory Oversight
Farmer Empowerment	Community-Led Reclamation, Farmer Group Development, Gender-inclusive Training, Local Leadership Support, Mentorship Opportunities, Peer-to-peer Knowledge Exchange, Training Access and Delivery, Youth Involvement in Farming
Stakeholder Collaboration	Benefit-sharing Schemes, Community Feedback Loops, Co-monitoring Processes, Conflict Resolution Mechanisms, Cross-sector Partners, NGO Involvement, Participatory Planning, Stakeholder Negotiation
Sustainable Cacao Agriculture	Agroforestry Integration, Cacao as a Strategic Crop, Ecological Co-Benefits, Institutionalization of Cacao Models, Long-Term Sustainability Vision, Organic and Regenerative Practices, Productivity and Quality Improvement, Sustainable Inputs and Technology

). Appendix A contains conceptual definitions for the ten parent nodes, while Appendix B presents a detailed list of the 80 child nodes arranged under their respective categories. Collectively, these appendices offer a clear reference to the analytical framework that supports the model’s development. This coding framework—comprising a hierarchy of 10 parent nodes and 80 child nodes—ensures comprehensive thematic coverage and analytical consistency across institutional, behavioral, environmental, and economic dimensions of post-mining sustainability. With this structure and conceptual foundation in place, the subsequent analytical procedures were undertaken in a structured sequence, as outlined in the following sections.

2.4. Analytical Procedures

To translate theoretical concepts into measurable themes, this study established a coding framework grounded in abductive reasoning and empirical iteration. The process involved constructing structured nodes based on core sustainability dimensions, then applying NVivo-assisted thematic analysis to synthesize insights from 773 qualitative remarks. This section outlines how coding categories were developed, applied, and validated to support the development of an empirically grounded, theory-informed sustainability model.

Coding Framework Development: Based on the conceptual model outlined earlier, an abductive synthesis approach was used to construct the coding system. This approach integrated theoretical guidance with empirical insights from 773 remarks. The resulting structure included 10 parent nodes and 80 child nodes across themes such as CSR Governance, Economic Revitalization, Environmental Restoration, Farmer Empowerment, and Sustainable Cacao Agriculture. Each parent node captured a core dimension of post-mining sustainability, while the child nodes reflected detailed practices and institutional mechanisms. The structure ensured thematic consistency and traceability during coding.

Thematic Coding and Meta-Synthesis: 

Table 1. NVivo-thematic summary of sustainability enablers in post-mining land. Source: Authors’ elaboration based on NVivo-coded qualitative synthesis (n = 773).

#	Thematic Category	Description	Frequency	Representative Example
1	Economic Revitalization	Income generation, market access, and value chain development	922	“Cacao farming helped diversify community income streams”
2	CSR Role and Governance	Program design, planning, transparency, and accountability mechanisms	872	“Long-term CSR commitments influenced land-use continuity”
3	Behavioral Change (TPB)	Attitudes, norms, control, intention, and behavioral readiness	829	“Perceived behavioral control was critical to cacao adoption”
4	Sustainable Cacao Agriculture	Agronomic practices, post-harvest, sustainability in cacao value chain	757	“Post-mining cacao systems relied on organic practices and innovation”
5	Triple-Bottom-Line Outcome	Environmental, economic, and social impact alignment	749	“Outcomes were evaluated using TBL indicators and metrics”
6	Stakeholder Collaboration	Multi-stakeholder engagement, shared governance, participatory planning	665	“Inclusive forums improved negotiation and shared goals”
7	Land Compensation Strategy	Land-use trade-offs, reallocation, and economic/legal restitution	593	“Cacao farming emerged as a viable compensation strategy”
8	Environmental Restoration	Soil rehabilitation, agroforestry, biodiversity, water management	548	“Tree canopy systems restored fertility to degraded land”
9	Institutional Role	Regulatory, policy, and coordination mechanisms across sectors	530	“Ministries coordinated rehabilitation incentives”
10	Farmer Empowerment	Capacity building, inclusion, leadership, access to inputs	499	“Training programs empowered women and youth farmers”
	Total		6964

presents the consolidated results of NVivo-based thematic coding, offering a structured summary of how each parent node contributes to the overarching sustainability framework. It also functions as a key empirical foundation for the model-building process. Each thematic category is defined not only by its conceptual focus but also by empirical frequency and illustrative quotations extracted from the dataset. This synthesis promotes transparency and enhances conceptual fidelity by showing how theoretical models were operationalized through qualitative data. The frequency column indicates the volume of coded references, which reinforces thematic density, while the representative examples demonstrate grounded insights from stakeholders involved in post-mining land use and cacao-based reclamation. By summarizing theoretical categories alongside representative data, the table bridges conceptual design and grounded insight, reinforcing the analytical cohesion of the overall model.

This high volume of coding enabled the research to maintain strong fidelity to the conceptual framework. The structured and theoretically aligned coding taxonomy ensured that each remark could be accurately interpreted within its relevant thematic and conceptual domain. As a result, the study was able to generate insights that are both contextually grounded and analytically robust, facilitating a grounded synthesis of sustainability practices specific to post-mining reclamation.

The NVivo-based thematic coding process yielded a total of 6964 initial codes, averaging approximately nine per remark. This high volume reflects the analytical depth and multidimensional nature of the dataset. The coding revealed strong thematic interconnections across the 10 parent nodes, with recurring cross-node patterns—particularly between behavioral readiness, institutional roles, and environmental outcomes. Memo writing and iterative comparison during the coding phase allowed for advanced pattern recognition, while NVivo’s matrix and frequency tools enabled the systematic identification of dominant and emerging themes. This thematic detail served as a foundational layer for building a coherent synthesis. Themes were subsequently consolidated into conceptual clusters that represented input variables, mediating factors, and performance outcomes along a pathway toward sustainable post-mining land use.

The coded outputs summarized In Table 1 served not only as thematic descriptors but also as the analytical foundation for the development of the study’s performance model. These insights laid the groundwork for translating theoretical constructs into measurable and actionable sustainability outcomes, thereby strengthening the empirical basis for model construction. The outcome of this design logic is illustrated in Figure 2, which visually maps the model’s structure and dual-pathway foundation.

Thematic synthesis followed five methodical stages that translated the 773 remarks into a theory-informed performance model:

• Framework Design—This initial stage involved the construction of a theoretical and conceptual framework derived from an integration of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), the Triple Bottom Line (TBL), Stakeholder Theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and Legitimacy Theory. These foundational perspectives informed the classification of parent and child nodes, ensuring conceptual alignment between empirical data and theoretical constructs. The structure was designed to cover ecological, institutional, behavioral, and socio-economic themes relevant to post-mining sustainability.
• Data Preparation: During this stage, all 773 remarks were cleaned, categorized, and formatted for qualitative analysis. The remarks were verified for consistency across platforms (MS Access and MS Word), ensuring that each paragraph represented a unique, thematically relevant insight. The refined dataset was then imported into NVivo 12 software for systematic coding. This preparation ensured a reliable foundation for the subsequent coding process.
• Open and Axial Coding: In this critical analytical phase, the remarks were coded line-by-line to capture multiple conceptual signals. Open coding allowed the identification of emergent patterns and key ideas within each remark, while axial coding facilitated the grouping of codes into thematic clusters under the established node structure. Memoing was used throughout to document analytical reflections and maintain interpretive consistency. This dual coding approach ensured both data-driven discovery and theoretical depth.
• Validation: To enhance analytical credibility, the coded data underwent several rounds of validation. NVivo’s matrix queries, text search tools, and coding comparison reports were used to confirm the consistency, frequency, and context of code application. Instances of overlapping, ambiguous, or underutilized codes were reviewed and refined. The validation stage also ensured thematic saturation, verifying that all ten parent categories were well-represented across the dataset.
• Model Integration: In the final stage, the synthesized thematic patterns were mapped onto a conceptual model. The relationships among input variables (e.g., CSR support), mediators (e.g., behavioral readiness, stakeholder collaboration), and sustainability outcomes (e.g., economic revitalization, environmental restoration) were identified and linked. This culminated in the design of a Triple-Bottom-Line-based performance measurement model for sustainable cacao-based post-mining land reclamation. The model was both theoretically informed and empirically grounded, shaped by direct insights from the coded data.

2.5. Analytical Coding Framework and Data Source Typology

A qualitative meta-synthesis was conducted using NVivo 12 to systematically integrate academic and institutional literature on post-mining sustainability. This approach enabled thematic patterning, conceptual abstraction, and synthesis across varied sources, including journal articles, regulatory documents, CSR reports, and sustainability assessments.

The coding framework used a two-level hierarchy. At the first level, ten parent nodes were established to reflect key strategic dimensions of sustainability transformation: (1) Behavioral Change and Readiness, (2) Cocoa-Based Livelihoods, (3) CSR-Based Co-Financing and Governance, (4) Empowerment and Inclusion, (5) Environmental Preparedness, (6) Institutional Realignment, (7) Spatial Justice and Land Compensation, (8) Stakeholder Collaboration and Legitimacy, (9) Transformation Mechanisms, and (10) Triple-Bottom-Line Outcomes.

Each parent node was further divided into 8 child nodes (80 total), capturing more specific issues such as farmer field schools, risk perception, legitimacy deficits, organic certification, and CSR funding schemes (see Appendix A, (Table A1)). While the design ensured thematic balance, actual remark distribution varied in density, reflecting variation in discursive emphasisacross themes.

The 773 coded remarks were sourced from three major categories: academic (peer-reviewed journals and dissertations), institutional (government regulations, ministerial policies, NGO reports), and policy oriented (CSR roadmaps, national strategies, multi-stakeholder evaluations). This triangulation ensured a broad epistemological scope—from legal frameworks and policy directives to community empowerment and sustainability science. The framework not only supported deep pattern recognition but also served as the empirical foundation for the TILANG Framework, grounding the model in real-world complexities and theoretically informed insights.

3. Results

This section presents the empirical results of a qualitative meta-synthesis grounded in 773 scholarly and institutional remarks, systematically analyzed using NVivo 12 software. The dataset was coded using a structured framework consisting of 10 parent nodes and 80 child nodes, enabling mapping of sustainability dimensions in post-mining governance.

The findings are organized into four major thematic clusters that emerged as the most integrative and analytically significant: (1) CSR Governance and TBL Provisioning, (2) Cacao-Based Economic Revitalization, (3) Community Empowerment and Behavioral Readiness, and (4) Integrated Performance Outcomes and Stakeholder Contradictions. These clusters were selected for their high frequency, inter-thematic convergence, and critical role in operationalizing the TILANG Framework.

Rather than addressing these themes in isolation, the analysis illustrates how institutional structures, economic strategies, and behavioral inclusion interact to shape sustainability outcomes in post-mining regions. These empirical patterns form the critical foundation for the theoretical interpretation and framework synthesis presented in the Section 4.

3.1. Empirical Orientation and Thematic Focus

This section presents three core thematic findings derived from a qualitative meta-synthesis of 773 institutional and academic remarks, systematically coded into 10 parent nodes and 80 child nodes using NVivo 12. These themes capture critical intersections between institutional functions, community behavior, and sustainability outcomes within post-mining landscapes.

Rather than analyzing these dimensions in isolation, the findings are structured to demonstrate how governance mechanism, economic revitalization strategies, and community empowerment efforts converge in practice. Collectively, these insights offer the empirical foundation for the development of an integrated land governance framework aimed at the fragmentation that characterizes Indonesia’s post-mining sustainability landscape.

3.2. Foundational Patterns of Post-Mining Sustainability

To advance empirical understanding from the coded dataset, this subsection examines four foundational patterns that define sustainability efforts across Indonesia’s post-mining landscapes. Rather than approaching sustainability as a series of fragmented interventions, the analysis demonstrates how institutional structures, community agency, and economic mechanisms interact within distinct thematic configurations. These patterns reflect prevailing stakeholder perspectives and strategic orientations, as captured in the 773 coded remarks.

Each of the following subsections elaborates on one thematic domain, emphasizing its practical implications and contributions to sustainability outcomes. Collectively, these findings provide the empirical scaffolding for the theoretical interpretation and the synthesis of the TILANG Framework presented in the subsequent discussion.

3.2.1. CSR Governance and TBL Provisioning

In Indonesia’s post-mining regions, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has evolved from a voluntary philanthropic gesture into a pivotal instrument for land recovery and community development. The synthesis of stakeholder insights underscores the potential for CSR—when structured through formal governance mechanisms and aligned with Triple-Bottom-Line (TBL) principles—to become a core strategy in sustainable reclamation efforts [55,56].

Field-based observations and institutional reports emphasized persistent governance fragmentation in CSR implementation [57]. Numerous companies designed CSR programs autonomously, negotiating targets and timelines independently with local authorities, resulting in uneven implementation, limited transparency, and misalignment with spatial or ecological priorities [58]. As one institutional summary noted, CSR was “frequently detached from spatial planning and sustainability metrics,” thereby weakening its legitimacy and reducing its developmental impact [59].

In response to these gaps, stakeholders introduced the concept of TBL Provision—a proposed mechanism to unify CSR contributions under performance-oriented, results-based sustainability objectives [60]. The TBL Provision integrates financial resources, procedural commitments, and institutional alignment, thus positioning CSR not merely as a compliance obligation but as a vehicle for strategic co-financing of post-mining reclamation [61].

At the operational level, CSR was seen as most effective when explicitly tied to TBL indicators such as soil fertility restoration, livelihood diversification, and inclusive governance mechanisms [62]. In some clusters, CSR-sponsored agroforestry programs and farmer training emerged as tangible illustrations of such synergy, albeit still dependent on strong institutional leadership and local collaboration [63].

There was also growing demand to institutionalize TBL performance logic through formal policy instruments. Proposals for sustainability scorecards, joint monitoring schemes, and participatory accountability tools reflected the collective desire to shift CSR from input-based philanthropy to measurable and long-term governance outcomes [64,65]. Overall, the findings suggest a transition in how CSR is conceptualized and applied: from fragmented, donor-driven practices to integrated governance mechanisms that are financially viable sustainable, procedurally accountable, and outcome-focused. While such institutionalization remains aspirational in many contexts, the emergence of TBL Provision and alignment with TBL principles marks a critical pivot in the national discourse on land governance [66].

3.2.2. Economic Revitalization Through Cacao

Cacao-based agroforestry is not merely a reclamation measure—it has emerged as a catalyst for inclusive economic revitalization in post-mining landscapes. The thematic synthesis of 615 coded excerpts affirms cacao’s multifaceted role as an ecological restorer, economic regenerator, and vehicle for community regeneration. Rather than being framed as a short-term cash crop, cacao was widely described by respondents as a “transformation crop”—one that enables livelihood diversification, entrepreneurship, and rural identity building [67].

Across 83 coded references, cacao-based enterprise models illustrated how former subsistence farmers evolved into value-creating actors. Local innovations—such as seedling nurseries, fermentation hubs, and village-based chocolate production—were highlighted as instruments of self-determination and economic dignity [68]. These grassroots enterprises not only restored ecological functions but also revitalized social capital in regions historically dominated by extractive industries. Institutional studies cited within the remarks, including those by Hernawan et al. [69] and Terlau et al. [70], reinforced the importance of embedding cacao development into local ecological and cultural contexts.

Cooperative business systems were referenced in 141 coded references as vital infrastructures for scaling community impact. These cooperatives offered not only improved market access but also technical services, financial literacy, and collective bargaining power. A recurring highlight was the “Ten-Born-Ten” credit model, praised for enabling traceable supply chains and equitable pricing mechanisms [71]. Such mechanisms transformed fragmented production landscapes into cohesive rural economies, aligned with principles of stakeholder engagement and community legitimacy [72].

Economic diversification was another dominant theme. Farmers commonly intercropped cacao with banana, cassava, or chili to mitigate climate and price risks, a trend reflected in 183 coded references. Risk buffering was further supported by informal financial strategies, such as rotational savings groups and small-scale capital reinvestment, cited in 106 coded references. These adaptive behaviors strongly reflect components of the Theory of Planned Behavior, particularly the perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy dimensions [73,74].

Finally, 102 coded references focused on market connectivity and inclusive value chains. These included digital farmer–buyer platforms, ethical sourcing contracts, and decentralized processing facilities. Such developments not only increased household income but also elevated the social legitimacy of cacao farmers, repositioning them from marginal producers to active agents of post-mining sustainability governance [75].

Overall, the evolving cacao economy in post-mining zones offers empirical evidence for integrated sustainability strategies. It demonstrates how ecological restoration, community empowerment, and institutional coordination can align through agroforestry-centered innovation. As later sections will explore, these patterns provide essential inputs for developing a systematic model of land governance in post-extractive regions.

Cacao’s evolving role in post-mining landscapes illustrates a powerful intersection of economic revitalization, ecological restoration, and institutional learning. More than a livelihood strategy, cacao operates as an institutional entry point—linking grassroots entrepreneurship with governance transformation. The emergence of farmer-led cooperatives, ethical value chains, and adaptive financial behaviors demonstrates how behavioral change, stakeholder legitimacy, and multi-level coordination can coalesce in degraded environments. These initiatives offer empirical clues for co-financing, risk diversification, and value-chain innovation, transforming former extraction areas into productive, community-driven agroecosystems. As the analysis progressed, such patterns informed the development of an integrated land governance model that aligns institutional provisioning, performance outcomes, and inclusive sustainability—the foundational logic of what this study later conceptualizes as the TILANG Framework.

3.2.3. Community Empowerment and Behavioral Readiness

The sustainability of post-mining reclamation hinges not only on institutional architecture but also on the empowerment and behavioral readiness of local communities. Drawing on 457 coded references, this section highlights how psychosocial factors, community participation, and farmer agency collectively influence the success of landscape transformation.

Empowerment was consistently cited as a catalyst for behavioral change. Respondents emphasized the pivotal role of farmer field schools, peer learning networks, and local leadership in fostering competence, confidence, and critical awareness among community members. These programs enabled farmers to internalize good agricultural practices, ecological knowledge, and value-chain strategies—shifting their role from passive beneficiaries to informed decision makers. Behavioral change was further reinforced by peer norms, institutional trust, and exposure to demonstration plots, aligning strongly with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) dimensions of subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intention formation.

Community inclusion emerged as a recurrent theme in 183 remarks, particularly those coded under stakeholder legitimacy and procedural justice. Respondents emphasized that inclusive decision making—through participatory planning, transparent consultation, and multi-stakeholder forums—was fundamental to gaining community trust and sustaining commitment to long-term goals. In areas where such mechanisms were absent, implementation stalled or was met with resistance.

Behavioral readiness also intersected with institutional support. Several respondents observed that when empowerment strategies were aligned with accessible resources—such as land access, seedling subsidies, and market guarantees—community motivation and innovation flourished. This interplay between individual agency and structural support illustrates a feedback loop where empowered behavior can reinforce institutional legitimacy, and vice versa.

These behavioral and participatory patterns suggest that the pathway to sustainability in post-mining contexts is not solely institutional, but also deeply behavioral. The capacity of local actors to adopt new practices, trust governance structures, and collaborate across stakeholder lines is critical to long-term recovery. These insights directly inform the construction of a more integrative governance framework—what this study later conceptualizes as the TILANG Framework. Specifically, community empowerment and behavioral readiness are positioned within this framework as enabling conditions that bridge institutional provisioning with performance outcomes. Rather than treating behavioral inclusion as a residual component, the TILANG Framework recognizes it as a core operational logic—crucial for aligning governance effectiveness with grassroots legitimacy in post-mining sustainability transitions.

3.2.4. Integrated Performance Outcomes and Stakeholder Contradictions

The convergence of stakeholder engagement, institutional design, and behavioral alignment reveals a critical shift toward integrated performance outcomes in post-mining sustainability governance. Thematic synthesis of stakeholder insights highlights that legitimacy building across diverse actor networks—governments, communities, and companies—is foundational for co-producing sustainable outcomes. This legitimacy is not merely normative but increasingly tied to measurable Triple-Bottom-Line (TBL) indicators such as soil restoration, inclusive livelihoods, and inter-agency coordination [76,77].

Field evidence indicates that when cross-sector collaboration is embedded in planning and reporting mechanisms, it enables co-financing, shared accountability, and adaptive governance. This aligns with Stakeholder Theory through relational reciprocity and with Legitimacy Theory by institutionalizing trust-based validation of sustainability claims [78]. Dana TBL, a proposed mechanism introduced in several stakeholder accounts, formalizes this integration by combining financial resources, procedural commitment, and institutional alignment [60,79].

However, the pathway toward integrated performance is obstructed by persistent stakeholder contradictions. Thematic evidence from over 221 coded remarks reveals that definitions of “success” vary significantly. While ministries and corporate CSR units often rely on compliance metrics or disbursement reports, local communities prioritize relational outcomes—such as trust, tenure clarity, and livelihood stability [80,81]. This disconnect contributes to what has been described as a “legitimacy disjuncture,” particularly in areas lacking participatory evaluation platforms [82].

Further compounding this gap is the fragmentation of performance measurement tools. Respondents noted inconsistencies between ministerial scorecards, NGO-led frameworks, and corporate self-assessments, resulting in redundancy, confusion, and weak accountability [83]. One institutional critique summarized this clearly: “there is no convergence in what counts as impact” [84].

Despite these contradictions, the findings show momentum toward co-produced indicators that better reflect community values and adaptive resilience. Examples include participatory soil monitoring, social capital indices, and livelihood benchmarking co-developed with farmer groups [85]. Such tools not only improve evaluative accuracy but also strengthen legitimacy by grounding performance evaluation in local experience.

Altogether, this dual reality—of emerging integration and persistent fragmentation—validates the need for a recalibrated performance architecture. Within the evolving logic of this study, these insights justify the conceptualization of the TILANG Framework, which seeks to embed institutional coherence and behavioral legitimacy within an outcome-driven sustainability governance model [86,87].

In summary, the four thematic clusters presented in this section offer a grounded perspective on the institutional, behavioral, and economic conditions that shape post-mining sustainability. These results reveal practical configurations of stakeholder action and governance dynamics that operate across fragmented landscapes. Rather than concluding with descriptive themes, the findings invite a deeper reflection on the underlying frameworks that can translate fragmented practices into coherent governance strategies. The following section addresses this need by interpreting the results through key theoretical lenses and integrating them into a performance-based governance model.

4. Discussion

Building on the empirical patterns identified in the Section 3, this discussion interprets the findings through a multi-theoretical lens to uncover deeper conceptual and policy implications. Section 4.1 engages five foundational theoretical perspectives—Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Stakeholder Theory, Legitimacy Theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and the Triple Bottom Line (TBL)—to explain how institutional, behavioral, and performance dimensions converge in post-mining governance. This theoretical interpretation provides the conceptual clarity needed to navigate the complexity of stakeholder interactions, accountability structures, and sustainability practices observed in the field.

Section 4.2 synthesizes these insights into the TILANG Framework (Triple-Bottom-Line Integrated Land Governance), a governance-oriented performance model designed to align institutional provisioning, community empowerment, and sustainability outcomes. The framework offers a strategic response to fragmented land-use governance in Indonesia, transforming empirical findings into a coherent, policy-relevant model for sustainable post-mining transformation.

4.1. Theoretical Interpretation: Guiding Frameworks for Post-Mining Sustainability

To interpret the empirical findings presented in Section 3, this study draws upon five foundational theoretical perspectives: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Stakeholder Theory, Legitimacy Theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and the Triple Bottom Line (TBL). These frameworks provide the conceptual scaffolding necessary to analyze how institutional arrangements, behavioral motivations, and sustainability outcomes intersect in the governance of post-mining landscapes.

CSR offers insight into the evolving role of corporate actors, particularly in co-financing recovery initiatives and aligning with community-driven sustainability goals beyond regulatory compliance. Stakeholder Theory explains the importance of inclusive, multi-actor coordination in shaping responsive governance across public, private, and community sectors. Legitimacy Theory highlights the significance of institutional credibility, participatory mechanisms, and public trust in sustaining long-term reclamation outcomes. The TPB contributes a behavioral lens, emphasizing how perceived control, subjective norms, and institutional trust influence individual and collective action. Finally, the TBL framework enables a multidimensional assessment of sustainability performance across environmental, economic, and social domains.

Rather than treating these perspectives in isolation, this study adopts a layered interpretation that integrates theoretical insights with the empirical patterns identified in the Section 3. This conceptual integration supports a deeper understanding of how fragmented governance, community agency, and sustainability practices can be realigned. These theoretical underpinnings directly inform the design of the performance-based governance model introduced in Section 4.2—the TILANG Framework.

4.2. Synthesis of the TILANG Framework for Post-Mining Governance

The preceding analysis demonstrates that sustainable reclamation in post-mining landscapes hinges not solely on ecological rehabilitation or economic revitalization but on the dynamic interplay between institutional provisioning, behavioral inclusion, and performance-based legitimacy. In response to these findings, this study introduces the TILANG Framework—Triple-Bottom-Line Integrated Land Governance—as a performance-based governance model designed to reframe sustainability in Indonesia’s mining-affected regions.

The TILANG Framework is grounded in a qualitative meta-synthesis of 773 stakeholder-derived remarks and reflects three mutually reinforcing domains: (1) Institutional Provisioning, (2) Behavioral Enablement, and (3) Performance Accountability.

Institutional Provisioning encompasses coordinated CSR governance, inclusive land compensation strategies, and formal mechanisms that embed sustainability into reclamation planning. This domain underscores the structural levers—such as Dana TBL (TBL Provision) and regulatory co-financing schemes—that support cross-sector accountability and resource mobilization These mechanisms reflect institutional patterns previously explored in the empirical discussion.

Behavioral Enablement emphasizes the role of farmer agency, community participation, and trust-building processes evident in the cacao-based revitalization and empowerment dynamics. Drawing from the Theory of Planned Behavior and Stakeholder Theory, this domain highlights how perceptions of behavioral control, subjective norms, and local leadership significantly shape the success of post-mining interventions.

Performance Accountability addresses the evolving methods for assessing sustainability outcomes. It prioritizes legitimacy-based metrics, co-produced evaluation tools, and participatory feedback systems that move beyond technocratic or donor-driven reporting.

Crucially, the framework reconceptualizes land compensation—not as a one-time transaction—but as a strategic platform for agroecological renewal and socio-economic transformation. When aligned with community empowerment and CSR-supported land regeneration, compensation becomes a driver of integrated sustainability rather than a mechanism of restitution.

The TILANG Framework also functions as both a corrective and preventive governance tool, designed to address chronic deficiencies in land-use enforcement, ecological degradation, and institutional fragmentation. By shifting from reactive interventions to proactive transformation mechanisms, TILANG supports the institutionalization of long-term sustainability strategies.

The framework is anchored by six interlocking principles: Trust, Inclusivity, Legitimacy, Alignment, Norms, and Governance. These principles ground the model in participatory ethics while enhancing inter-agency coordination and systemic resilience.

As illustrated in Figure 3, the three domains are not treated in isolation. Governance mechanisms influence behavioral incentives, which in turn affect how outcomes are perceived, measured, and legitimized. At the center lies the concept of sustainability co-production—a convergence point, where institutions, communities, and evaluative standards collectively shape governance practice.

In summary, the TILANG Framework synthesizes theoretical foundations from Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Legitimacy Theory, Stakeholder Theory, and agroecological systems thinking. It frames sustainability not merely as a fixed outcome but as a co-produced governance process embedded in institutional provisioning, behavioral enablement, and performance measurement. Operationalized through six guiding principles—Trust, Inclusivity, Legitimacy, Alignment, Norms, and Governance (T-I-L-A-N-G)—the framework invites policymakers, companies, and communities to move beyond parallel efforts and toward collaborative regeneration of Indonesia’s post-mining landscapes.

5. Conclusions

This study presents a comprehensive framework for sustainable post-mining reclamation by positioning cacao-based agriculture as a strategic compensation mechanism that integrates ecological restoration, community empowerment, and institutional trust building. Grounded in a meta-synthesis of 773 scholarly and institutional sources, the model synthesizes six foundational theoretical frameworks: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Stakeholder Theory, Legitimacy Theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the Triple Bottom Line (TBL), and the original conceptual innovation of this study—the TILANG Framework itself.

Toward a Legitimate, Inclusive, and Measurable Framework. TILANG—the Triple-Bottom-Line Integrated Land Governance framework—is a comprehensive model comprising three defining elements. First, it reflects the imperative to balance environmental, social, and economic outcomes in post-mining sustainability. Second, it draws from six foundational theoretical principles: (T) Theory of Planned Behavior, (I) Institutional Role, (L) Legitimacy Theory, (A) Agency and Stakeholder Theory, (N) Normative CSR, and (G) Multi-level and Collaborative Governance.

Third, it is operationalized through six implementation principles: Trust, Inclusivity, Legitimacy, Alignment, Norms, and Governance. Together, these principles bridge micro-level behavioral change with macro-level governance structures, offering a strategic roadmap for integrated, participatory, and performance-driven land reclamation. Trust and legitimacy are prerequisites for community engagement, while inclusivity and alignment enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of implementation.

The reappropriation of the term “TILANG”—commonly associated in Indonesia with traffic enforcement—adds symbolic significance. In this context, it is reinterpreted as a corrective and preventive governance mechanism designed to overcome land-use fragmentation, weak accountability, and ecological degradation. The TILANG Framework functions both as a metaphorical representation of institutional reform and a practical governance model grounded in behavioral and sustainability science.

Policy Recommendations. To implement this framework effectively, post-mining land must be recognized as a productive compensatory asset within spatial planning and agrarian reform. Inter-ministerial coordination—particularly among Energy and Mineral Resources, Environment, Forestry, and Agriculture—is needed to align mine closure procedures with long-term CSR programs. CSR must evolve beyond ad hoc disbursements into co-governance mechanisms, supported by TBL-based funding instruments (TBL Provision), outcome-driven monitoring, and institutional legitimacy.

Behavioral readiness, aligned with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and TILANG frameworks, should guide extension services and capacity-building efforts. The adoption of Triple-Bottom-Line (TBL)-oriented indicators tailored to cacao-based systems is essential to evaluate sustainability outcomes and social acceptance. These reforms should be institutionalized through participatory monitoring tools and inclusive evaluation mechanisms.

Theoretical and Practical Contributions. This study advances theory by integrating behavioral and governance frameworks into a unified explanatory model. The combination of the TPB and the TILANG Framework provides a novel lens for understanding sustainability transitions in post-extractive contexts. Practically, the framework serves as a decision support tool for designing, financing, and monitoring inclusive reclamation strategies.

Research Novelty. This research reframes cacao not merely as a commodity—but as a restorative mechanism that links social equity, ecological resilience, and policy legitimacy. It introduces a novel, integrative land governance framework that combines six major theoretical foundations and demonstrates the analytical potential of large-scale, NVivo-assisted qualitative synthesis.

Future Research Directions. Future studies should validate the TILANG Framework through longitudinal case studies, design instruments to quantify its components, and incorporate ecological performance indicators. Comparative research across provinces and participatory action research with policy actors can strengthen the model’s practical relevance and institutional uptake.