The Influence of Passenger Car Banning Policies on Modal Shifts: Rotterdam’s Case Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Previous Work
1.3. Aim and Contribution of This Study
- What is the state of usage of Rotterdam’s passenger transport modes before and after applying the LEZ ban on passenger cars?
- To what extent did the supporting policy instruments that were provided influence the transition toward sustainable mobility?
- How do the currently applied passenger transport measures influence the modal shifts in Rotterdam?
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1. Low-Emission Mobility
Low-Emission Zones (LEZs)
2.2. Transport Policy Packages
2.3. Modal Shifts
2.4. Conceptual Framework
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Final Sampling Selection and Data Sources
3.2. Limitations of the Study
- Not all alternative means of transport are included (e.g., shared vehicles, electric bikes, and walking) due to a shortage of data and time limitations.
- The study did not include any of the land use, the socio-political, or the political-economic aspects that greatly affect the applications of the LEZ.
- Most available data are in Dutch, and extra time and effort were required to translate and classify the documents.
- Datasets using different modes do not follow for a unified measurement condition. Cars are visually counted once a year; bikes are limited to specific locations; public transport does not have detailed data per station for all modes.
- The datasets from the municipality were not openly shared with the research community. Furthermore, their existing evaluation reports are based on different sources, including ‘1000 samples’ surveys (which cannot be significant for a city of 651,446 inhabitants). Hence, this was excluded from this research.
- There are no vehicles or emissions-monitoring stations specified for the LEZ, with continuous counting. The TNO had to perform a counting week to collect data for the municipality’s 2016 report [33].
- Data on 2020 were expected to have an impact, but due to COVID-19, transport usage was affected. Thus, any dataset in 2020 was replaced by estimated averages.
4. Results
4.1. Trends in Rotterdam’s Passenger Transport Network
4.1.1. Passenger Car Trips
4.1.2. Metro-Line Trips
4.2. LEZ’s Supporting Policies
4.2.1. The Scrappage Scheme
4.2.2. Increasing the Electric Vehicle’s Infrastructure
4.2.3. The Park-and-Ride System
5. Discussion
5.1. Summary of the Main Findings
- As a hub for different transport modes, Rotterdam is characterized by a robust yet increasingly busy passenger transport network. Public transport is at its maximum capacity, and the city still identifies as car-oriented. Without prior improvements in the public transport capacity, on applying LEZ regulations on passenger cars, the owners of polluting cars did not shift their modal choices. The majority avoided entering the banned area or used the scrappage scheme to buy an advanced diesel/benzene car.
- The LEZ can be considered a fast solution that improves air quality, and it is successful in that manner [31,49]. Yet, Rotterdam’s scope of the passenger cars’ ban (2016–2020) was too small to have a statistically significant impact on the alternative transport modes. Consequently, the results highlighted Rotterdam’s urge to consider decreasing its car dependency to guarantee less traffic congestion in the future. With the passenger car ban being removed in 2020 (instead of widening its range), even the increasing traffic is no longer guaranteed to be clean.
- Rotterdam is moving slowly but steadily towards the electrification of passenger cars. The increase in electric car usage is significantly linked to the rise in the electric charging infrastructure and an overall rise in traffic, not to the incentives program or the LEZ. This link recommends that if the city wants to keep following a car-oriented vision, there must be rigid encouragement towards zero-/low-emission traffic and smaller vehicle sizes for less congestion. Furthermore, proper advertisements and the provision of electric mobility alternatives should be communicated early and directly linked to policy measures such as the LEZ and the scrappage scheme.
- Unfortunately, P+R parking is only used as extra parking in the city, where the provided spots act as traffic feeders [52]. The research results suggest that there must be a better management and monitoring system for such parking spots. The additional P+R parking spots should be directly inserted as a replacement for inner-city parking or attached to stricter parking regulations.
- Overall, the results showed various policies and planning fluctuation. The applied measures are somewhat indifferent and inconsistent and act in favor of car use. Whether it is the LEZ, the P+R, the scrappage scheme, or support for EVs, there is no clear and coherent vision for Rotterdam’s mobility. On the one hand, car dominance is not guided correctly and is not progressively moving towards zero-emission vehicles (i.e., Rotterdam’s long-term plan). On the other hand, the city is actively working on the narrowing of inner-city streets. It promises a zero-emissions future [44], which cannot be achieved without comprehensive decision-making.
5.2. Policy Recommendations
- Providing alternative sustainable modes of transport is essential before restricting passenger cars from entering the LEZ for cities to absorb the transition.
- From the start, clear reasons, a consistent strategy, a comprehensive package, and a long-term vision must be provided.
- To support the policy and its related future decision making, continuous monitoring and consistent evaluation regarding each specific measure and its linked accompanying package should be annually guaranteed.
5.3. Implications for Future Research
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Field | Title | Context | |
---|---|---|---|
Expert 1 | Senior municipal mobility advisor | LEZ policymaker | Rotterdam |
Expert 2 | Mobility management and parking policies | LEZ advisor and Ph.D. researcher | Rotterdam |
Expert 3 | Senior municipal mobility advisor | Traffic plan maker | Rotterdam |
Expert 4 | Traffic control and intersection | Ph.D. researcher | Delft |
Expert 5 | Sustainable mobility, ports, and policies | Professor, expert | Rotterdam |
Expert 6 | Vehicles emissions expert | Ph.D. engineer/researcher | Brussels |
Expert 7 | LEZ expert and policymaker | LEZ and policies researcher | Paris |
Expert 8 | Urban planning and mobility advisor | Researcher, advisor | Rotterdam |
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Attia, M.; Alade, T.; Attia, S. The Influence of Passenger Car Banning Policies on Modal Shifts: Rotterdam’s Case Study. Sustainability 2023, 15, 7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097443
Attia M, Alade T, Attia S. The Influence of Passenger Car Banning Policies on Modal Shifts: Rotterdam’s Case Study. Sustainability. 2023; 15(9):7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097443
Chicago/Turabian StyleAttia, Maha, Taslim Alade, and Shady Attia. 2023. "The Influence of Passenger Car Banning Policies on Modal Shifts: Rotterdam’s Case Study" Sustainability 15, no. 9: 7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097443
APA StyleAttia, M., Alade, T., & Attia, S. (2023). The Influence of Passenger Car Banning Policies on Modal Shifts: Rotterdam’s Case Study. Sustainability, 15(9), 7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097443