Microbiology Research

13 pages, 2119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Alfalfa-Fermented Green Juice (aFGJ) Preparation and Its Effects on Microbial Community and Nutrient Composition in Alfalfa Silage

by Ting Mao, Ze Ye, Yongyan Niu, Qun Zheng, Tao Yang and Zhiye Wang

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020052 - 19 Feb 2025

Viewed by 482

Abstract

To study the relationship between the microbial community structure and the quality of alfalfa silage by adding alfalfa-fermented green juice (aFGJ), the Box–Behnken design was used to optimize the process of preparing aFGJ. High-throughput sequence technology was used to detected the microbial community [...] Read more.

To study the relationship between the microbial community structure and the quality of alfalfa silage by adding alfalfa-fermented green juice (aFGJ), the Box–Behnken design was used to optimize the process of preparing aFGJ. High-throughput sequence technology was used to detected the microbial community structure of aFGJ and silage samples, and two silage experiments were designed: silage with aFGJ (LZQC) and silage with no addition (CK). In addition, the chemical composition and fermentation quality of silage samples at different times were determined. The result showed that the optimal aFGJ culture condition for LAB quantity was an addition of 2.6% glucose to alfalfa green juice and an anaerobic culture at 35 °C for 49 h, and the number of viable bacteria can reach 8.0 × 10⁸ cfu·mL⁻¹. The main microorganisms (species level) were Lactobacillus brevis (57.63%) and Lactobacillus plantarum (37.31%). There was a significant increase in the relative abundance of Pediococcus. pentosaceus and L. plantarum and a reduction in L. brevis after silage for 70 days with the added aFGJ; meanwhile, the chemical composition (DM losses, aNDF) and fermentation quality (pH, NH₃-N/TN, LA) were significantly better than that of the CK group. The addition of aFGJ changed the types and abundance of microbial communities, increased the number of beneficial lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and decreased the number of harmful bacteria, which had a significant effect on the quality of the silage. Full article

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13 pages, 1752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diode Laser and Red-Laser Photodynamic Therapy with Toluidine Blue Gel for the Treatment of Onychomycosis: A Case Series

by Sara García-Oreja, Francisco Javier Álvaro-Afonso, Aroa Tardáguila-García, David Navarro-Pérez, Esther Alicia García-Morales and José Luis Lázaro-Martínez

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020051 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 932

Abstract

Background: Onychomycosis is the most prevalent nail disease, posing a challenge for health professionals in terms of treatment. Conventional topical antifungal treatments can often prove insufficient, and the use of oral antifungal drugs carries a high frequency of adverse events and drug–drug interactions. [...] Read more.

Background: Onychomycosis is the most prevalent nail disease, posing a challenge for health professionals in terms of treatment. Conventional topical antifungal treatments can often prove insufficient, and the use of oral antifungal drugs carries a high frequency of adverse events and drug–drug interactions. Objective: The primary aim of this study was to determine the cure rate of onychomycosis using a combined treatment of diode laser and photodynamic therapy with red-laser photodynamic therapy (PDT) and toluidine blue gel. Methods: A series of onychomycosis cases were treated and monitored for 6 months with eight applications of diode laser therapy. This treatment was combined with three applications of red-laser PDT paired with toluidine blue gel. Clinical cure was evaluated one week after the treatment’s conclusion, while mycological cure was assessed via microbiological culture. Results: The study included 12 patients and a total of 17 nails. At the end of treatment, clinical, mycological, and complete cure rates were 100% for all patients and nails. No adverse reactions were reported during or after the PDT application. However, all patients experienced pain during laser application, and two patients experienced hematoma and subungual blistering post-treatment. Two patients (2/12) experienced recurrence in three nails (3/17; recurrence rate: 17.6%) within 6 months following treatment. Conclusions: The combination of diode laser therapy and red-laser PDT with toluidine blue gel seems effective and safe for the treatment of mild, moderate, and severe onychomycosis. Full article

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14 pages, 1360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Siderophore Production, Diversity of Siderophore Receptors and Associations with Virulence-Associated Genes, Phylogroups and Bacteriocin Production in Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Humans, Animals and Organic Fertilizers

by Marina V. Kuznetsova, Veronika S. Mihailovskaya, Polina A. Selivanova, Darja A. Kochergina, Natalia B. Remezovskaya and Marjanca Starčič Erjavec

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020050 - 17 Feb 2025

Viewed by 569

Abstract

Iron uptake plays an important role in the persistence of Escherichia coli in the host and for its survival in the environment, and it is known that E. coli has a variety of siderophore systems for iron uptake. We investigated the ability to [...] Read more.

Iron uptake plays an important role in the persistence of Escherichia coli in the host and for its survival in the environment, and it is known that E. coli has a variety of siderophore systems for iron uptake. We investigated the ability to produce siderophores, the genetic diversity of the siderophores and their correlation with virulence-associated genes (VAGs), phylogroups and bacteriocin production in E. coli strains isolated from different sources: uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) from urine of patients with urinary tract infections, avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) from organs of birds with signs of colibacillosis, fecal E. coli (FEC) from feces of healthy cattle and E. coli from organic fertilizers based on poultry and cattle manure (OFEC). A high variability in siderophore production was found among the UPEC strains studied, while the OFEC strains showed the highest siderophore production among all groups. Genes for aerobactin and yersiniabactin receptors were most frequently found in the UPEC strain, followed by the APEC, FEC and OFEC strains. The greatest diversity of siderophore receptors was found in the APEC strain. We also found that iutA-positive E. coli isolated from animals contained more VAGs than iutA-negative strains. The profiles of the siderophore genes of APEC and OFEC from poultry manure were very similar, indicating that APEC can be transmitted via organic fertilizers, suggesting that poultry manure is an environmental risk. The data obtained complement the information on the prevalence of siderophore producers and contribute to our knowledge on the biodiversity of E. coli pathotypes. Full article

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9 pages, 465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydroethanolic Extract of Punica granatum Inhibits Cryptococcus by Depolarising Mitochondrial Membranes

by Julliana Ribeiro Alves Santos, Brenda Letícia Araujo Motta, Haryne Lizandrey Azevedo Furtado, Alessandra Teixeira de Macedo, Alexsander Rodrigues Carvalho Junior, Lídio Gonçalves Lima Neto, Aruanã Joaquim Matheus Costa Rodrigues Pinheiro, Cibelle Raphaela da Silva Cavalcante Moreira, Luís Cláudio Nascimento da Silva and Rodrigo Assuncao Holanda

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020049 - 16 Feb 2025

Viewed by 396

Abstract

Cryptococcal infections are distributed worldwide and mainly caused by Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. The reduced number of antifungals and increasing number of cases of resistance require the search for new therapeutic options, such as natural products. Among these, Punica granatum L. [...] Read more.

Cryptococcal infections are distributed worldwide and mainly caused by Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. The reduced number of antifungals and increasing number of cases of resistance require the search for new therapeutic options, such as natural products. Among these, Punica granatum L. has demonstrated antifungal activity. The present study aimed to evaluate the in vitro activity of the hydroethanolic extract of the leaf of P. granatum (HEPg) alone or in antifungal combination against C. neoformans and C. gattii and the interference of P. granatum in the mitochondrial membrane of Cryptococcus using flow cytometry. The minimum inhibitory concentration was determined, which showed inhibitory activity against Cryptococcus isolates. The fractional inhibitory concentration resulted in an indifferent interaction between the combination of amphotericin B + HEPg, whereas the combination of fluconazole + HEPg was synergistic against C. gattii. The depolarisation of mitochondrial membranes was more pronounced when C. gattii was previously treated with P. granatum, either individually or in combination with antifungal agents. In contrast, prior treatment of C. gattii with fluconazole promoted the hyperpolarisation of mitochondrial membranes. Considering the growing search for alternative forms of treatment for cryptococcosis, this study highlights the antifungal potential of P. granatum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antifungal Activities of Plant Extracts)

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15 pages, 21352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green-Synthesized Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Inhibit and Eradicate the Biofilms of Pathogenic Bacteria Through Intracellular ROS Production

by Fareha Bano

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020048 - 15 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 547

Abstract

Objectives: Bacterial infections, mainly due to rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR), are an immense global health threat, complicating treatment, prolonging illness, and increasing mortality. The WHO lists AMR as one of the major threats to human health. Biofilm plays a crucial role in AMR, [...] Read more.

Objectives: Bacterial infections, mainly due to rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR), are an immense global health threat, complicating treatment, prolonging illness, and increasing mortality. The WHO lists AMR as one of the major threats to human health. Biofilm plays a crucial role in AMR, protecting bacteria and promoting resistance. Targeting biofilms improves antibiotic efficacy and reduces chronic infections. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) have emerged as a promising candidate in drug delivery, diagnostics, and antimicrobial therapies due to their distinctive properties. Methods: Due to the challenge of AMR and the potential of green-synthesized nanoparticles, this study investigates antibiofilm activity and intracellular ROS production by TiO₂-NPs produced from Linum usitatissimum seed extract. Results: The crystal size of LU-TiO₂-NPs was determined as 8.024 nm, and TEM validated the average particle size as 14.30 ± 5.93 nm. FTIR confirmed the presence of the O-Ti-O bond near 684 cm⁻¹. LU-TiO₂-NPs effectively inhibited biofilms, reducing biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 3160 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 by 79.96% and 71.85%, respectively. Microscopic analysis also showed a reduction in bacterial adherence and colonization. This inhibition was supported by the reduction in exopolysaccharides, a major biofilm component. The biofilm inhibition was likely mediated by the induction of intracellular ROS production by LU-TiO₂-NPs. Furthermore, LU-TiO₂-NPs successfully eradicated established biofilms of both the Gram +ve and Gram −ve bacteria. Conclusion: The findings demonstrate that TiO₂-NPs hold significant promise in tackling biofilm-associated bacterial infections and may prove beneficial in addressing the escalating problem of AMR. Full article

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21 pages, 6511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bacterial Community Composition and Diversity of Soils from Different Geographical Locations in the Northeastern USA

by Luis Jimenez

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020047 - 14 Feb 2025

Viewed by 534

Abstract

Soil is the most dynamic matrix in the environment and where biogeochemical cycles take place through the activities of microorganisms such as bacteria. A 16S rRNA sequence analysis of seven different soil samples from different geographical locations in the northeastern part of the [...] Read more.

Soil is the most dynamic matrix in the environment and where biogeochemical cycles take place through the activities of microorganisms such as bacteria. A 16S rRNA sequence analysis of seven different soil samples from different geographical locations in the northeastern part of the United States of America was conducted in order to determine bacterial community composition and diversity and whether geographical distance affects community composition. Microbial DNA was extracted from each soil sample and next generation sequencing was performed. Overall, the predominant bacterial phyla with high relative abundance in each soil were found to be members of Pseudomonadota, Actinomycetota, Acidobacteriota, Chloroflexota, and Bacteroidota which comprised the core microbiome in all 7 soils analyzed. At the order level, the top four bacteria belonged to Rhizobiales, Actinomycetales, Gaiellales, and Solirubrobacterales. Bacterial identification at the genus level were predominantly unclassified with an average of 58%. However, when identification was possible, the most abundant genera detected were Bradyrhizobium and Rhodoplanes. Surface soil samples from the states of New York, Maryland, and Delaware showed the lowest bacterial diversity when compared to suburban soil samples from the state of New Jersey. Similarity between bacterial communities decreased with increasing distance, indicating the dispersal limitations of some bacteria to colonize different habitats where some types show high relative abundance and others did not. However, in some samples, deterministic factors such as land management and possible vehicle emissions probably affected the assemblage and diversity of bacterial communities. Stochastic and deterministic processes might have determined the biogeographical distribution of bacteria in soils influencing the community structure and diversity. Full article

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38 pages, 2107 KiB

Open AccessReview

What We Still Don’t Know About Biofilms—Current Overview and Key Research Information

by Tsvetozara Damyanova and Tsvetelina Paunova-Krasteva

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020046 - 12 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1475

Abstract

The existence of biofilms as heterogeneous structures, comprising bacterial cells embedded in a self-synthesized polymeric matrix and adhered to biotic and abiotic surfaces, exhibiting high antibiotic tolerance, is a fact that, in recent years, has exerted selective pressure on healthcare systems with the [...] Read more.

The existence of biofilms as heterogeneous structures, comprising bacterial cells embedded in a self-synthesized polymeric matrix and adhered to biotic and abiotic surfaces, exhibiting high antibiotic tolerance, is a fact that, in recent years, has exerted selective pressure on healthcare systems with the emergence of numerous infections. This review provides a historical overview of the emergence of biofilms, the latest insights into their functionality and distribution, as well as data on innovative strategies to combat them. Special attention is given to significant diseases caused by biofilms, alongside current data on the molecular mechanisms underpinning their tolerance and resistance. Full article

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17 pages, 1104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Burden of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Oman: A Six-Year Single-Study Calling for Urgent Actions

by Mohammed Abdullah Al Shuhoumi, Suleiman Al Ghafri, Fareed J. Hameed, Asma Al Hinai, Abir Al Ghafri, Sathiya R. Mony, Bader Al Sawafi, Gopinath Govindaraj, Asma Al Yaqoobi, Badryia Al Alawi, Vinod Arora, Amani H. Al Waili and Abdulrahman Al Mhrooqi

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020045 - 12 Feb 2025

Viewed by 863

Abstract

Background: Healthcare facilities worldwide are struggling to combat the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs). MDROs pose a serious threat to patient safety, resulting in longer hospital stays, higher healthcare expenses, and increased mortality rates. Oman aims to enhance patient safety by implementing [...] Read more.

Background: Healthcare facilities worldwide are struggling to combat the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs). MDROs pose a serious threat to patient safety, resulting in longer hospital stays, higher healthcare expenses, and increased mortality rates. Oman aims to enhance patient safety by implementing data-driven strategies for infection control protocols. MDRO studies are limited, with only one-year data available from a tertiary hospital. No comprehensive six-year study has been released from Oman, leaving a gap in understanding the true burden of MDROs in the country. Methods: A 6-year retrospective cross-sectional analysis of MDRO files at Ibri Regional Hospital was conducted from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2022 on clinical samples (urine, pus, eye, ear, tissue, fluid, wound, CSF, blood, ET, and sputum culture). Non-clinical and duplicate samples were excluded. Two prevalence rates were calculated: isolates and patients per 1000 admissions. Isolates were identified using the API system, VITEK-2, and MALDI-TOF MS. CLSI guidelines that are updated annually were used for antibiotic susceptibility testing. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS to identify significant associations between pre-established variables. Ethical approval was obtained from the Centre for Studies and Research (MOH/CSR/26193). Results: MDRO prevalence in our cohort (1846 cases) was illustrated per isolate and per patient (1000 admission) and showed a growing trend; 25.60:18.70/1000 (2017), 24.40:22.40/1000 (2018), 26.80:19.40/1000 (2019), 31.20:21.70/1000 (2020), 32.50:19.00/1000 (2021), and 31.70:20.40/1000 (2022). Urinary infections were predominant, followed by surgical, respiratory, blood, and neurological infections. Respiratory infections increased during the COVID-19 era. ESBL remained the primary burden, followed by Acinetobacter MDR, MRSA, CRE, pseudomonas MDR, and VRE. VRE showed a spike in 2021 but returned to baseline in 2022. Conclusions: The study reveals a growing trend of MDROs in Oman, with species prevalence similar to that of adjacent countries. Urgent actions needed include national antibiotic policies, a local antibiogram database, public awareness campaigns on antibiotic resistance, and predicting bed occupancy for expansion/construction programs. Full article

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10 pages, 513 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

In Vitro Preliminary Evaluation of a New Rifamycin In Situ Gelling Formulation for Pouchitis Treatment

by Caterina Aiello, Cinzia Quattrocchi, Rosario Musumeci, Daria Nicolosi, Giulio Petronio Petronio and Roberto Di Marco

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020044 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 681

Abstract

Pouchitis is one of the most common long-term complications after ileal pouch–anal anastomosis (IPAA) surgery, with a reported incidence rate of up to 50%. Identifying specific bacteria involved in the pathogenesis has important implications for clinical management. Indeed, antibiotic therapy is a common [...] Read more.

Pouchitis is one of the most common long-term complications after ileal pouch–anal anastomosis (IPAA) surgery, with a reported incidence rate of up to 50%. Identifying specific bacteria involved in the pathogenesis has important implications for clinical management. Indeed, antibiotic therapy is a common treatment option, but antibiotic choice and treatment duration can vary depending on the severity of symptoms and the bacteria involved. Ansamycins are effective in the management of antibiotic-dependent pouchitis. Therefore, this study aimed to test the in vitro antibacterial activity of a novel rifamycin gel solution, specifically intended for treating infections associated with pouchitis, with the agar diffusion assay. Furthermore, the in vitro antibacterial activity of rifamycin sodium salt against several bacterial strains involved in pouchitis was compared with the gel formulation. Rifamycin’s in vitro anti-microbial characteristics were not affected by the gel formulation. These results, although preliminary, support the potential of the Rifamycin Gel formulation as a valuable addition to the therapeutic armamentarium for this challenging condition. Full article

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10 pages, 2108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leptospira interrogans Associated with the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus) from the Neotropical Region of Mexico

by Laura A. Chong-Guzmán, Nidia Aréchiga-Ceballos, Gerardo G. Ballados-Gonzáles, Carlos I. Miranda-Caballero, Estefanía Grostieta, Mariel Aguilar-Domínguez, Dora Romero-Salas, Rosa I. Hernández-Herrera, Pablo San Martín-del Ángel, Miguel A. Lammoglia-Villagómez, Ingeborg Becker, Pablo Colunga-Salas, Anabel Cruz-Romero and Sokani Sanchez-Montes

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020043 - 10 Feb 2025

Viewed by 735

Abstract

The genus Leptospira includes at least 69 Gram-negative, aerobic spirochetes, of which 25 are pathogenic and associated with a diverse range of mammals, including members of the order Chiroptera. On the American continent, there are six confirmed Leptospira species. Among these, the common [...] Read more.

The genus Leptospira includes at least 69 Gram-negative, aerobic spirochetes, of which 25 are pathogenic and associated with a diverse range of mammals, including members of the order Chiroptera. On the American continent, there are six confirmed Leptospira species. Among these, the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), which ranges widely from northern Mexico to northern Argentina, has been reported to harbor four pathogenic taxa: Leptospira borgpetersenii, Leptospira interrogans, Leptospira weilii, and Leptospira cf. noguchii. All these species are frequently isolated from beef and dairy cattle, suggesting that contact with urine from infected cattle could serve as a potential source of infection for bats. However, previous studies have been limited by small sample sizes and low geographical representation among the countries where they were conducted. For this reason, the aim of this study was to identify the species of Leptospira associated with D. rotundus populations in five states within the Neotropical region of Mexico. Between 2015 and 2021, 54 bats were collected across five Mexican states. Our analysis identified the exclusive presence of L. interrogans in 13 specimens. The findings are discussed within the framework of a One Health perspective, emphasizing their relevance to understanding interspecies transmission dynamics. Full article

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7 pages, 197 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Hyperinfection by Strongyloides stercoralis: Series of Cases in a Regional Hospital in Southern Spain

by Ana Lucas-Dato, María Dolores Hernández-Rabadán, Pedro Luis Boils Arroyo and Jara Llenas-García

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020042 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 543

Abstract

Background: Strongyloidiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the nematode Strongyloides stercoralis. In immunosuppressed patients, it may progress to hyperinfection syndrome (HIS) and disseminated strongyloidiasis (DS), both of which are associated with high mortality rates. We reviewed cases of HIS and [...] Read more.

Background: Strongyloidiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the nematode Strongyloides stercoralis. In immunosuppressed patients, it may progress to hyperinfection syndrome (HIS) and disseminated strongyloidiasis (DS), both of which are associated with high mortality rates. We reviewed cases of HIS and DS in a Spanish hospital located in an area with endemic strongyloidiasis. Methods: All of the patients who met the HIS or DIS criteria between 1999 and 2023 at the Vega Baja Hospital in Orihuela (Alicante, Spain) were included. Results: Five patients were identified, four of them autochthonous (median age 72 years, 80% male), with three cases of HIS and two cases of DS in the form of meningitis, due to E. faecalis and E. coli. The most common risk factor, observed in three patients, was corticosteroid use. Two patients died. Conclusions: This case series highlights the severity of infections in immunocompromised patients in an endemic area of Spain, emphasizing the need to establish screening protocols for patients at risk of immunosuppression, including both locals and migrants. Full article

12 pages, 2588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of an Early-Life Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LPJZ-658 Intervention on Performance and Gut Microbiota in Suckling Piglets

by Zuopeng Chen, Ziqi Liu, Chen Chen, Yanjun Fu, Haiyang Wang, Cuiqing Zhao, Jiali Zhang and Liming Liu

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020041 - 7 Feb 2025

Viewed by 650

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effects of early-life supplementation with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LPJZ-658 on the growth performance and gut microbiota of newborn piglets. Twelve one-day-old suckling piglets were randomly divided into two groups: the control group (C) was orally administered saline and [...] Read more.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of early-life supplementation with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LPJZ-658 on the growth performance and gut microbiota of newborn piglets. Twelve one-day-old suckling piglets were randomly divided into two groups: the control group (C) was orally administered saline and the LPJZ-658 group (LP) was gavaged with 1.0 × 10¹⁰ cfu LPJZ-658. The supplementation was carried out once daily for 28 days. Fresh fecal samples were collected at 7 and 28 days, respectively. The microbiota composition (16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing) and its predicted functions (PICRUSt2) were analyzed. The body weight and average daily weight gain were significantly increased in the LP group. Statistically significant differences were observed in bacterial diversity and composition of the gut microbial community between the C and LP groups. The predominant bacterial phylum in the piglets changed from Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria at day 7 to Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Spirochaetota at day 28 in both the C group and LP group. We found that LPJZ-658 supplementation suppressed a significant decrease in the relative abundance of Bacteroidota in suckling piglets at 28 days. At the genus level, LPJZ-658 reduced the relative abundance of pathogenic genera such as Clostridium sensu stricto 1, and increased the relative abundance of beneficial genera such as Ruminococcus, Christensenellaceae_R-7_group, Turicibacter, and UCG-002. KEGG metabolic pathway analysis showed that LPJZ-658 may improve amino acid metabolism by regulating the intestinal microbiota of suckling piglets. In summary, the early-life LPJZ-658 interventions significantly improve the growth performance of suckling piglets by the modulation of the gut microbiota. Full article

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17 pages, 2759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Response of Balamuthia mandrillaris to Lippia graveolens Extract Fractions

by Leobardo Daniel Gonzalez-Zuñiga, Jose Reyes Gonzalez-Galaviz, Abraham Cruz-Mendívil, Fernando Lares Villa, Erick Paul Gutiérrez-Grijalva, Jaime López-Cervantes, Dalia I. Sánchez-Machado, Luis Fernando Lares-Jiménez and Libia Zulema Rodriguez-Anaya

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020040 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 719

Abstract

Balamuthia mandrillaris is a free-living amoeba pathogenic to humans, causing amoebic granulomatous encephalitis (GAE). Due to the associated mortality rates of <95%, the absence of treatments, and a clear understanding of the pathogenesis of this amoeba, Lippia graveolens could be an interesting alternative [...] Read more.

Balamuthia mandrillaris is a free-living amoeba pathogenic to humans, causing amoebic granulomatous encephalitis (GAE). Due to the associated mortality rates of <95%, the absence of treatments, and a clear understanding of the pathogenesis of this amoeba, Lippia graveolens could be an interesting alternative since it has been used against bacteria, fungi, and other pathogenic protozoa. This study employed RNA sequencing to analyze differentially expressed genes (DEGs), following treatment with two fractionated L. graveolens extracts (concentration: 150 µg/mL) at 48, 96, and 120 h. The DEGs identified are associated with several functions such as stress responses (Prohibitin domain-containing protein), and oxidative damage repair and cell stability (Peroxiredoxin). Genes implicated in virulence and host interaction also showed significant expression changes, such as the ADP ribosylation factor (Arf) GTPase and ephrin type-A receptor, alongside transcription factors involved in the phagocytosis of amoebas. Additionally, the analysis of Gene Ontology categories revealed terms including transmembrane signaling receptor and protein tyrosine activity, DNA replication initiation, the mitotic M phase, and membrane integrity. These results provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms utilized by B. mandrillaris to respond to environmental stressors and the repression of genes related to essential functions, which could serve as potential targets for developing novel strategies. Full article

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13 pages, 2473 KiB

Open AccessReview

Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Microbes in the Wound Microbiome—How to Flip the Switch

by Sophie Charlotte Liegenfeld, Svenja Stenzel, Julian-Dario Rembe, Mandy Dittmer, Paulo Ramos and Ewa Klara Stuermer

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020039 - 6 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1264

Abstract

The wound microbiome refers to the specific community of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms, that are present in and around a wound. This microbiome plays a crucial role in wound healing, as it includes both healing-promoting and pathogenic microbes. The balance [...] Read more.

The wound microbiome refers to the specific community of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms, that are present in and around a wound. This microbiome plays a crucial role in wound healing, as it includes both healing-promoting and pathogenic microbes. The balance between these microbes significantly influences the healing process; a balanced microbial colonization can support wound healing and prevent infections, while an overgrowth of pathogenic microbes can lead to delayed healing processes and complications. The composition of the wound microbiome can vary depending on the type of wound, cause, genetic predisposition, and (social) environment. In this scope review, the complex interactions in the wound microbiome will be highlighted and the importance of non-pathogenic microbes for wound healing will be discussed. In addition, possible therapeutic approaches to restore a healthy microbiome and prevent infections will be addressed. A deeper understanding of these dynamics could open up new perspectives for the treatment of wounds and the development of strategies to combat wound infections. Full article

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10 pages, 1638 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Microbiota of Punctuated Snake Eel Ophichthus remiger (Valenciennes, 1842) Reared in Recirculation System Is Dominated by Latilactobacillus

by Jaime Romero, Carolina Ramírez, Luz Hurtado, Edison Serrano and Rodrigo Rojas

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020038 - 5 Feb 2025

Viewed by 613

Abstract

Research on microbiota has underscored the crucial influence of microbial communities on numerous biological functions that yield positive outcomes for the host, such as digestion, nutrient metabolism, resistance against pathogen invasion, and growth performance. Concurrently, numerous variables, including the host’s diet, genetics, and [...] Read more.

Research on microbiota has underscored the crucial influence of microbial communities on numerous biological functions that yield positive outcomes for the host, such as digestion, nutrient metabolism, resistance against pathogen invasion, and growth performance. Concurrently, numerous variables, including the host’s diet, genetics, and physiological condition and environmental factors, influence the gut microbiota. Our study aims to characterize the bacterial community composition of the common snake eel (Ophichthus remiger), captured wild and then reared under controlled conditions. We employed a 16S rRNA gene-based approach facilitated by next-generation sequencing to conduct this analysis. The gut microbiota of the snake eel was highly dominated by bacteria from the phylum Firmicutes, comprising over 80% of the relative abundance, with Lactilactobacillus being the most important genus. The results suggest that feed-associated bacteria may influence the composition of the microbiota, contributing the most relevant bacteria within the intestinal content. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the gut microbiota in Ophichthus remiger, offering novel insights into the potential roles of Firmicutes and Lactilactobacillus in marine eels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Microbiology and Diagnostics)

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24 pages, 971 KiB

Open AccessReview

Knockin’ on Cell’s Door: Influenza A Virus Adsorption and Its Pharmacological Inhibition

by Andrey Gorshkov and Elena Varyushina

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020037 - 4 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1102

Abstract

Influenza A virus (IAV) is a widespread human respiratory pathogen that contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality worldwide. The adsorption of the virus into the cell surface is the earliest stage of its replication cycle. The key role of N-linked sialic acids (SIAs) [...] Read more.

Influenza A virus (IAV) is a widespread human respiratory pathogen that contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality worldwide. The adsorption of the virus into the cell surface is the earliest stage of its replication cycle. The key role of N-linked sialic acids (SIAs) as receptors for binding to IAV’s hemagglutinin (HA) has long been acknowledged. The molecular specificity of this interaction is a key factor in host range, pathogenicity, and transmissibility of various IAV subtypes. Along with this, a number of recent studies have introduced significant complexity into the picture of IAV adsorption and revealed a multitude of new molecules on host cell surfaces to serve as receptors and/or co-receptors for IAV attachment. For successful internalization of the adsorbed virus, downstream signal transduction is necessary to activate effector endocytosis mechanisms. In recent years, our understanding of the sophistication and variability of signal transduction pathways in the virus attachment site has significantly expanded, with the help of research techniques like fluorescence imaging of individual viruses in real-time, dominant-negative mutants, siRNA knockdowns, protein kinase selective inhibitors, phosphoproteome profiling, and others. These approaches deepen our knowledge of the molecules involved in the early stages of the IAV life cycle and also serve as the basis for the development of new effective antiviral drugs. In our review, we analyze recent publications on the mechanisms of IAV adsorption, newly discovered receptors for virus attachment, and signal transmission in the site of the adsorbed virion. Besides this, we consider new data on the development of selective inhibitors as antiviral drugs aimed at both viral and cellular factors of IAV adsorption. Full article

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17 pages, 9406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Carotenoid Composition on Stability and Light-Induced Oxidative Damage of the LH2 Complexes Isolated from Ectothiorhodospira haloalkaliphila

by Denis V. Yanykin, Mark O. Paskhin, Sergey A. Shumeyko, Aleksandr A. Ashikhmin and Maxim A. Bolshakov

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020036 - 2 Feb 2025

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Abstract

Earlier, it has been shown that carotenoid-dependent singlet oxygen photogeneration in LH2 of Ectothiorhodospira haloalkaliphila leads to damage to pigments and protein. Present work continues this investigation using LH2 complexes with altered carotenoid composition: carotenoid-less LH2, and LH2 complexes with incorporated neurosporene, spheroidene, [...] Read more.

Earlier, it has been shown that carotenoid-dependent singlet oxygen photogeneration in LH2 of Ectothiorhodospira haloalkaliphila leads to damage to pigments and protein. Present work continues this investigation using LH2 complexes with altered carotenoid composition: carotenoid-less LH2, and LH2 complexes with incorporated neurosporene, spheroidene, or rhodopin (LH2-Neu, LH2-Sph, or LH2-Rho, respectively). This work provides the first data on the products (hydroperoxides of organic molecules, most likely components of the protein matrix of the complexes) of the interaction of singlet oxygen with LH2 components with a modified carotenoid composition; the ability of various carotenoids to both influence the stability of LH2 and participate in oxidative damage to the complexes is assessed. It was shown that inhibition of carotenoid synthesis led to a decrease in LH2 thermal stability and reduced the light-induced oxidative damage to bacteriochlorophyll and protein. Re-incorporation of exogenous carotenoids did not return stability of the complexes but reduced the tendency of complexes to aggregate, and (in the case of LH2-Rho) reactivated both photooxidation of bacteriochlorophyll and photoproduction of organic hydroperoxides. It was concluded that carotenoids play an important role in comple x stability and are capable of inducing oxidative damage to LH2 components through singlet oxygen photogeneration. Full article

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15 pages, 1405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biological Control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on Greenhouse Lettuce Using Trichoderma koningiopsis Agg

by Snježana Topolovec-Pintarić, Ana Maria Kovaček, Olga Malev, Ivana Kušan, Neven Matočec, Ana Pošta, Lucia Pole and Armin Mešić

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020035 - 31 Jan 2025

Viewed by 961

Abstract

The lettuce drop or white mold is an economically important disease as the causal fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum can infect the lettuce at any stage of plant development. Polyphagous nature of S. sclerotiorum, the longevity of soil-borne sclerotia and air-borne ascospores makes the [...] Read more.

The lettuce drop or white mold is an economically important disease as the causal fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum can infect the lettuce at any stage of plant development. Polyphagous nature of S. sclerotiorum, the longevity of soil-borne sclerotia and air-borne ascospores makes the control difficult. Chemical fungicides are available only for foliar application against infections by ascospores so, the development of bio-control is of great importance. We tested antagonism of native isolate T. koningiopsis agg. (Hypocreales) (STP8) under laboratory and greenhouse environments. In vitro tests showed excellent STP8 antagonisms to S. sclerotiorum evidencing hyperparasitic activity on mycelia and sclerotia as well as antibiosis. The sclerotia were completely degraded after two months. In the greenhouse, infection of lettuce with S. sclerotiorum was reduced by treating the seedlings with an STP8 spore suspension. Uninfected plants treated with STP8 were of the best quality based on morphological parameters, confirming the ability of STP8 to promote lettuce growth. Even the infected lettuce treated with STP8 were healthier and in better condition than the control lettuce, suggesting that STP8 was also enhancing plant defense system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Microorganisms and Their Incredible Potential to Face Societal Challenges)

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27 pages, 4553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enterobacter soli Strain AF-22b-4245: Study of the Genome and the Effect on Wheat Growth

by Ekaterina Alexeevna Sokolova, Olga Viktorovna Mishukova, Inna Viktorovna Khlistun, Irina Nikolaevna Tromenschleger, Evgeniya Vladimirovna Chumanova and Elena Nikolaevna Voronina

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020034 - 30 Jan 2025

Viewed by 964

Abstract

Background: In this work the plant growth-promoting (PGP) qualities of the Enterobacter soli strain AF-22b-4245 were studied, including screening tests for PGP, whole genome sequencing (WGS) and genome annotation, and greenhouse experiments on wheat. A gene table was formed that allows us to [...] Read more.

Background: In this work the plant growth-promoting (PGP) qualities of the Enterobacter soli strain AF-22b-4245 were studied, including screening tests for PGP, whole genome sequencing (WGS) and genome annotation, and greenhouse experiments on wheat. A gene table was formed that allows us to evaluate the potential PGP properties of a microorganism based on the results of genome-wide sequencing. Results: Based on the results of screening tests and genome annotation, it can be concluded that the E. soli strain AF-22b-4245 strain may have PGP properties, which consist in the ability to survive in arid and saline soils contaminated with copper, arsenic, lead, and chromium soils, form biofilms, produce phytohormones, siderophores, and solubilize phosphorus. Based on the results of experiments on wheat, the E. soli strain AF-22b-4245 increases the efficiency of mineral fertilizers; this effect persists even in conditions of drought and excess salt. It has been shown that E. soli A F22b-4245 can compensate for the lack of soluble phosphorus in the mineral fertilizer, probably by solubilizing insoluble forms in the soil. Full article

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13 pages, 1019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences and Pathogen Patterns in Surgically Treated Aortic Valve Endocarditis over 15 Years

by Elisa Mikus, Mariafrancesca Fiorentino, Diego Sangiorgi, Antonino Costantino, Simone Calvi, Elena Tenti, Elena Tremoli, Alberto Tripodi and Carlo Savini

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020033 - 29 Jan 2025

Viewed by 696

Abstract

Background: Infective endocarditis (IE) is a serious public health concern due to its high morbidity and lethality. This study investigates epidemiological trends in aortic valve endocarditis, focusing on sex-related differences in microbial etiology and surgical outcomes over a 15-year period. Methods: From January [...] Read more.

Background: Infective endocarditis (IE) is a serious public health concern due to its high morbidity and lethality. This study investigates epidemiological trends in aortic valve endocarditis, focusing on sex-related differences in microbial etiology and surgical outcomes over a 15-year period. Methods: From January 2010 to January 2024, 608 patients underwent cardiac surgery for IE at our center. Of these, 274 patients received isolated aortic valve replacement. This retrospective, single-center study analyzes these cases. Results: Despite a decline in overall aortic valve replacement surgeries, a significant increase in surgeries due to aortic valve endocarditis was observed (p < 0.001). Both sexes showed a rising incidence of aortic valve endocarditis, with females undergoing surgery at an older age, particularly in native valve cases (p = 0.008). In prosthetic valve cases, this age difference was less pronounced (p = 0.050). While sex did not influence microbial etiology in native valve endocarditis, females with prosthetic valves were more frequently infected by Streptococcus (p = 0.033). Staphylococcus aureus infections increased in native valves (p = 0.016). Conclusions: Over 15 years, surgical aortic valve endocarditis has risen in both sexes. Males are more often affected by native valve cases, while females develop it later. Neither gender nor microbial etiology independently predicts death. Full article

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12 pages, 1827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Evaluation of the Antiviral Properties of Exogenous mRNA Encoding the Human MxA Protein

by Marina A. Plotnikova, Ekaterina A. Romanovskaya-Romanko, Anastasia A. Pulkina, Marina A. Shuklina, Anna-Polina S. Shurygina and Sergey A. Klotchenko

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020032 - 25 Jan 2025

Viewed by 843

Abstract

MxA is a cytoplasmic protein induced in human cells exposed to type I and III interferons. It can inhibit various viruses, including influenza A, by blocking the early steps of the viral replication cycle. The rapid advancement of mRNA-based technology has allowed us [...] Read more.

MxA is a cytoplasmic protein induced in human cells exposed to type I and III interferons. It can inhibit various viruses, including influenza A, by blocking the early steps of the viral replication cycle. The rapid advancement of mRNA-based technology has allowed us to evaluate the antiviral activity of MxA-mRNA, encoding intracellular MxA protein, and explore its potential as a therapeutic agent. In this study, we used in vitro transfection methods to obtain functional, mature MxA-mRNA and evaluate its activity within cells. We also observed an undesirable cellular response to transfection with exogenous mRNAs, which involved interferon III induction and reduced cell viability. Nevertheless, preventive administration of MxA-mRNA led to a specific 10–80-fold decrease in influenza A and B levels in cell supernatants—an effect not observed with the control GFP-Luc-mRNA. Additionally, we investigated the antiviral activity of MxA-mRNA against RNA viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2 and both serotypes of RSV, but we could not demonstrate a significant virus-specific effect of exogenous mRNA on their replication. We believe that mRNAs that encode native antiviral proteins have great therapeutic potential. Full article

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15 pages, 3555 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

First Isolation, Molecular Identification, and Phylogenetic Characterization of A3B5 Very Virulent Infectious Bursal Disease Virus in Pullets in Chile

by Leandro Cádiz, Miguel Guzmán, Paola Rivera, Fernando Navarrete, Paulina Torres and Héctor Hidalgo

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020031 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 875

Abstract

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is an important pathogen affecting the poultry industry worldwide. IBDV serotype 1, including classical virulent strains (cvIBDV), variant strains (varIBDV), and very virulent strains (vvIBDV), is pathogenic for chickens. IBDV mainly infects immature B-lymphocytes in the bursa of [...] Read more.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is an important pathogen affecting the poultry industry worldwide. IBDV serotype 1, including classical virulent strains (cvIBDV), variant strains (varIBDV), and very virulent strains (vvIBDV), is pathogenic for chickens. IBDV mainly infects immature B-lymphocytes in the bursa of Fabricius, weakening the humoral immune response and leading to secondary infections and increased morbidity and mortality. The Laboratory of Avian Pathology received ten live 8-week-old pullets from a laying hen operation experiencing increased mortality, prostration, diarrhea, and sudden death. Upon necropsy, the affected birds presented swollen, hemorrhagic, and edematous bursa of Fabricius, as well as hemorrhage in the breast and thigh muscles. RT-PCR confirmed that the samples from the bursa of Fabricius were positive for IBDV. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP1 and VP2 gene nucleotide sequences classified the strain, isolated in embryonated chicken eggs, as the A3B5 genotype. Amino acid sequence analysis of the VP2 hypervariable region revealed the presence of amino acid residues commonly found in vvIBDV. Additional studies are required to investigate the epidemiological situation of this genotype in Chile and to evaluate current vaccination plans and their effectiveness against new variants. Full article

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15 pages, 1140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trends and Patterns of Antimicrobial Resistance in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Bangladesh

by Sangjukta Roy, Hridika Talukder Barua, Mohammad Julhas Sujan, Akram Hossain, Shyamal Kumar Paul, Syeda Anjuman Nasreen, Salma Ahmed, Nazia Haque, Zakir Hossain Habib, Aninda Rahman, S. M. Shahriar Rizvi, Md. Abul Hasnat, Soo Young Kwon, John Stelling, Sanjay Gautam, Alina Shaw, Florian Marks and Nimesh Poudyal

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020030 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1143

Abstract

Introduction: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health issue, particularly in resource-limited, low- to middle-income countries like Bangladesh. In this study, we analyze and present four years of data on AMR from a tertiary care hospital in Bangladesh to inform policymakers and [...] Read more.

Introduction: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health issue, particularly in resource-limited, low- to middle-income countries like Bangladesh. In this study, we analyze and present four years of data on AMR from a tertiary care hospital in Bangladesh to inform policymakers and the wider community. Methods: In a retrospective cross-sectional study, we collected data for 4403 bacterial isolates reported between January 2017 and February 2020 at Mymensingh Medical College Hospital (MMCH), Bangladesh. All data were entered, cleaned, and analyzed using the software Stata Version-16.0, WHONET, a microbiology laboratory data management solution, and Quick Analysis of Antimicrobial Patterns and Trends (QAAPT), an AMR data visualization platform. Results: The bacteria were most commonly isolated from urine (71.66%, n = 3155), followed by pus (11.63%, n = 512), sputum (6.70%, n = 295), wound swabs (6.70%, n = 295), stool (1.91%, n = 84), endotracheal aspirate (1.20%, n = 53), and blood (0.20%, n = 9). Gram-negative bacteria predominated in all samples. Escherichia coli was the most common Gram-negative bacterium (31.30%, n = 1378), while Staphylococcus aureus was the most common Gram-positive bacterium (4.38%, n = 193). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) showed that multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli, Klebsiella sp., and Acinetobacter sp. was common. S. aureus exhibited high resistance rates for beta-lactams, macrolides, and quinolones. In the urine samples, E. coli demonstrated high resistance to antibiotics like amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, ciprofloxacin, ceftriaxone, and cefuroxime (60–100%). Critical and high-priority pathogens as listed by the WHO constituted approximately 60% of the isolates. The AMR trends over three months showed increased resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid for E. coli and to cefuroxime for Klebsiella sp. For S. aureus, the resistance to ciprofloxacin increased over three years, while the resistance to azithromycin decreased. Conclusions: There is a rise in bacterial resistance to the available antibiotics, with a significant prevalence of critical and high-priority pathogens in Bangladesh. We recommend vigilant AMR surveillance and stewardship programs to control the AMR in this country. Full article

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17 pages, 1875 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zoonotic Foodborne Infections in a Tertiary Healthcare Setting: Clinical and Epidemiological Aspects of Campylobacter and Salmonella Infection in Northern Portugal in 2010–2020

by Maria Inês Matos, Rafael Rocha, João Pinto, André Guimarães, Rita Lino, Maria Helena Rocha, Marta Patacho, Raquel Duro, Lurdes Santos and Jorge Almeida

Microbiol. Res. 2025, 16(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16020029 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 875

Abstract

This study aimed to describe the epidemiology, clinical presentation, and management of Campylobacter sp. and Salmonella sp. infections in a tertiary hospital in Northern Portugal (2010–2020) and identify factors associated with reporting, invasive disease, and hospitalization. A retrospective review included patients with Campylobacter [...] Read more.

This study aimed to describe the epidemiology, clinical presentation, and management of Campylobacter sp. and Salmonella sp. infections in a tertiary hospital in Northern Portugal (2010–2020) and identify factors associated with reporting, invasive disease, and hospitalization. A retrospective review included patients with Campylobacter sp. (2015–2020) or Salmonella sp. infections (2010–2020). Reported cases were cross-referenced with the National Epidemiological Surveillance System. A total of 742 patients were included: 342 with Campylobacter sp., 392 with non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS), and 15 with typhoidal Salmonella (TS). Immunosuppression was present in 16.7% of cases. NTS infections were invasive in 21.4% of cases, compared to 4.0% for Campylobacter. Macrolide resistance in Campylobacter reached 10%, particularly in C. coli, while multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in 37.8% of NTS isolates. Immunocompromised patients accounted for over 70% of relapses in Campylobacter disease. Reporting rates were low: 32.8% for NTS, 30.6% for Campylobacter, and 14.3% for TS. Reporting was associated with male sex, no immunosuppression, hospitalization, and non-MDR organisms. In conclusion, immunocompromised patients face higher risks of invasive and relapsing disease. High rates of MDR in NTS limit treatment options. Underreporting remains significant, underscoring the need for improved awareness and reporting to inform public health strategies. Full article

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Microbiol. Res., Volume 16, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 24 articles

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