Psychological Effects of Green Experiences in a Virtual Environment: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Protocol and Registration
2.2. PICOS and Eligibility Criteria
2.3. Search Strategy
2.4. Study Selection
2.5. Data Extraction
2.6. Narrative Synthesis
2.7. Methodological Quality Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Study Characteristics
3.2. Categorized Intervention
3.3. Outcomes
3.3.1. Emotional Restoration
Positive Emotion
Negative Emotion
3.3.2. Cognitive Restoration
3.3.3. Stress
3.3.4. Other Effects
3.4. Methodological Quality Assessment
4. Discussion
4.1. Emotional Restoration
4.2. Duration of Exposure to Nature
4.3. Observation Position of the Landscape
4.4. Methodological Quality Assessment
4.5. Direction of Future Studies
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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PICOS Element | Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|---|
Population | Studies on the general population. | Studies not including human participants. |
Intervention | Studies reporting any intervention that uses virtual technology (e.g., VR, AR, 360°, 3D) and the green environment. | Studies not providing a description of the virtual technology and green environment where the intervention was held. |
Comparator | Studies with a comparison group (e.g., exposure to real green environment, non-natural experience, other comparative intervention). | Studies without comparable comparison group to virtual green space. |
Outcome | Any quantitative psychological outcome. | Studies not including quantitative psychological outcomes. |
Study Design | Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), crossover study, non-randomized controlled trials (NRCTs), and pre–post test design. | Review, case study, case–control study, cross-sectional study, and protocol study. |
Keywords | Inclusion Criteria |
---|---|
P | NA |
I | (“virtual reality” OR “virtual” OR “VR” OR “AR” OR “immersive experience” OR “augmented reality” OR “mixed reality” OR “simulation” OR “simulated” OR “CG” OR “3D” OR “virtual nature” OR “virtual forest” OR “virtual scenery” OR “virtual environment” OR “HMD” OR “virtual space” OR “immersive technology” OR “360”) AND (“forest” OR “landscape” OR “natural environment” OR “nature” OR “shinrin-yoku” OR “natural therapy” OR “nature walk” OR “green space” OR “park” OR “adventure” OR “nature connection” OR “plant” OR “nature connectedness” OR “wood”) |
C | NA |
O | (“psychological stress” OR “QoL” OR “POMS” OR “PANAS” OR “self-esteem” OR “STAI” OR “psychological” OR “self-efficacy” OR “psychological resilience” OR “well-being” OR “PRS” OR “CNS” OR “MSBS” OR “SPANE” OR “BDI” OR “BAI” OR “depression” OR “MRJPQ” OR “SSS” OR “ROS” OR “SSQ” OR “DASS” OR “self-reported” OR “mood” OR “psychologically” OR “relaxation” OR “stress reduction” OR “restoration”) |
S | (“RCT” OR “randomized controlled” OR “randomly” OR “intervention study” OR “pretest” OR “posttest” OR “crossover study” OR “pilot study” OR “randomized” OR “filed experiment” OR “field study” OR “comparative study” OR “empirical study” OR “field test” OR “crossover trial”) |
First Author (Year) [Ref] | Country | Participant | N | Female (%) | Age (M ± SD) | Intervention | Virtual Technology (Equipment) | Time | Control Group | Outcome Measurement | Study Design | IRB |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emamjomeh (2020) [42] | USA | University students | 35 | 22.9 | 23.5 ± 3.2 | Explore the virtual space through restored office place with trees outside window | IVE (HMD; HTC vive-pro) | 5 min | (n = 35) Real office place & trees outside window (n = 35) 3D office place and no trees (n = 35) real office place and no trees | PANAS (PA(+/), NA (*)); visual working memory(+/); IPQ(general(/), spatial presence(/), involvement(*), realness(/) | Randomized crossover | X |
Lähtevänoja (2020) [43] | FI | Primary school students | 57 | NA | NA | (n = 19) See the restored forest, sky, the flying butterfly with bird sounds | VR (HMD; HTC Vive Pro-headset) | 5 min | (n = 19) Free break (n = 19) No break | ROS(*); Problem-solving ability(/) | pre-posttest design | X |
Yu (2018) [44] | TW | Healthy adults | 30 | 56.7 | 20 to 35 | See the restored natural forest and waterfall with the sound of cicadas, rivers, etc. | VR (HMD; HTC vive VR) | 9 min 30 sec | Restored subway station and shopping plaza with traffic soundtrack | POMS(depression(*), tension(*), anger-hostility(*), fatigue(*), confusion(*), vigor(*), self-esteem(*)) | Randomized crossover | O |
Yu (2020) [45] | TW | Healthy adults | 34 | 82.4 | 58.8 ± 8.4 | See the restored trail in dense forest, waterfall, trees, river with natural sounds | VR (HMD; Samsung Gear VR) | 10 min | Restored city | POMS(depression(*), tension(*), anger-hostility(+/), fatigue(*), confusion(*), vigor(+/), total(*)); RCS(Being away(*), Extent(*), Fascination(*), Compatibility(*)); SART(*) | crossover | X |
Gromala (2015) [46] | CH | Adults with chronic pain | 13 | 22.9 | 49.0 ± 8.2 | (n = 7) See the restored mountains and trails with the sound of MBSR | Deepstream VR (Firsthand Technology) | 12 min | (n = 6) Listening only MBSR | NRS(*) | RCT | X |
Valtchanov (2010) [47] | CA | University students | 22 | 54.5 | 17 to 26 | (n = 12) Freely explored a forest setting with natural sounds, air freshener, rumble pad shook | VR (HMD; nVIS, Reston, VA) | 10 min | (n = 10) Watched a slideshow of abstract paintings | ZIPERS(PA(*), negative(+/)); Math Quiz(/) | RCT | X |
Mostajeran (2021) [48] | GE | Adult | 34 | 32.4 | 27.3 ± 4.1 | 360° videos were played mixed forest with natural sounds | 360° videos (HMD; HTC vive-pro) | 6 min | (n = 34) Nature slideshows on the screen (n = 34) City slideshows on the screen (n = 34) City 360° videos | STADI-S(depression(/), anxiety(/)); POMS(Total(*), Fatigue(*)); SSSQ(/); PSS(/); IPQ(general(*), spatial presence(*), involvement(*), realness(*); SSQ(*) | crossover | O |
Reese (2022) [49] | GE | Adult | 52 | 61.5 | 24.2 ± 3.7 | Virtual reality nature walk through a restored urban forest with bird sounds | VR (HMD; OculusRift) | 7 min | Short nature walk through adjacent forest | PANAS(PA(*), NA(*)); SSS(+/); SVS(+/) | RCT | O |
Kim (2021) [50] | KR | Healthy adult | 74 | 50.0 | 39.0 | Virtual reality relaxation in real famous scenery with a relaxing soundtrack | VR (HMD; Samsung Gear VR) | 10 min 30 sce | Biofeedback relaxation | STAI-X1(*); NRS(*) | Randomized crossover | O |
Li (2021) [51] | CH | University students with mild-to-moderate anxiety and depression | 189 | 59.8 | 20.3 ± 2.6 | Restored environment including lawn, garden, water, forest (1) (n = 35) Visual experience (2) (n = 37) Interactive activities (3) (n = 40) Interactive activitie: fishing (4) (n = 38) Interactive activitie: watering | VR (HMD; HCT Vive Pro Eye sets, helmet, handles, 2.0 locators, locators brackets) | 10 min | (n = 39) VR urban environment visual experience | (1) PANAS(PA(/), NA(*)); GSES(*) (2) PANAS(PA(*), NA(*)); GSES(+/) (3) PANAS(PA(+/), NA(*)); GSES(*) (4) PANAS(PA(/), NA(*)); GSES(+/) | RCT | O |
Jo (2022) [52] | KR | People with mild depression, stress, and anxiety | 60 | 50.0 | 24.3 ± 2.4 | Forest experience with natural sounds | VR (HMD; HTC- Vive pro, HD-650) | 3 min | Urban or waterfront area experience VR | POMS(TA(*), DD(+/), AH(*), VA(*), FI(*), CB(*), FR(*), TMD(*)) | RCT | O |
Yin (2020) [53] | USA | Healthy adult | 100 | 63.0 | 29.2 ± 11.8 | (1) (n = 25) Explore indoor green plants (2) (n = 25) Explore outdoor green view through windows (3) (n = 25) Combination both (1) and (2) | VR (HMD; HTC Vive VR headset) | 6 min | (n = 25) Green-free office | (1) STAI(+/) (2) STAI(*) (3) STAI(*) | RCT | O |
Sneed (2021) [54] | USA | University students | 73 | 60.3 | 25.7 ± 8.8 | Experience a virtual nature area along a wooded trail and pond | 360° videos (HMD) | 10 min | (n = 25) Real-life nature (n = 21) Virtual library | HNC(NRS(*), SINS(*)) | RCT | O |
Newman (2022) [55] | UK | Adult | 16 | 50.0 | 43.0 ± 17.0 | (a) Graphical representation of the restored experience including lake, tree and sky | VR (HMD; VIVE, in-ear headphones) | 10 min | Real forest or video filmed from the real experience | PANAS-X(PA(/), NA(/), serenity(*)) | RCT | X |
120 | 84.2 | 20.0 ± 2.5 | (b) Feel like a walk (1) (n = 30) High realism natural (2) (n = 30) Low realism natural | VR (HMD; VIVE, in-ear headphones) | 10 min | (n = 30) High realism built (n = 30) Low realism built | (1) PANAS-X(PA(*), NA(*), serenity(*)) (2) PANAS-X(PA(*), NA(*), serenity(*)) | RCT | O | |||
Schebella (2020) [56] | AU | Adult | 52 | 53.8 | 37.6 ± 10.6 | Spent time in real parks (1) Low biodiversity with natural sounds (one bird, tree leaves) and natural single scent (2) Moderate biodiversity with natural sounds (two birds, tree leaves) and two different natural scents (3) High biodiversity with natural sounds (four birds, tree leaves) and three different natural scents (4) High biodiversity only visual | IVE (HMD; Oculus Rift) | 5 min | Urban with single scent | (1) VAS(Stress(*), Anxiety(*), Calmness(+/), Insecurity(+/), Happiness(*)) (2) VAS(Stress(+/), Anxiety(+/), Calmness(+/), Insecurity(+/), Happiness(+/)) (3) VAS(Stress(+/), Anxiety(+/), Calmness(+/), Insecurity(+/), Happiness(+/)) (4) VAS(Stress(+/), Anxiety(+/), Calmness(+/), Insecurity(+/), Happiness(+/)) | RCT | X |
Browning (2020) [57] | USA | Healthy university students | 98 | 47.6 | 20.0 ± 1.2 | See the restored real forest with natural sounds | VR (Samsung Gear VR headset) | 6 min | Real forest setting in front of a blank white wall | PANAS(PA(/), NA(*)); PRS(*) | RCT | O |
Schutte (2017) [58] | AU | University students | 26 | 61.5 | 34.5 ± 12.6 | Experience natural virtual reality environments including eucalyptus trees, a meadow, and a stream with natural sounds | 360° videos (Samsung 360° virtual reality headset) | 6 min | VR city environment | PANAS(PA(*), NA(+/)) | RCT | O |
Huang (2020) [59] | CH | Healthy university students | 89 | 50.6 | 23.0 ± 2.8 | See the 3D courtyard with grass or a courtyard with trees | VR (oculus headset) | 10 min | Courtyard devoid of any vegetation | PANAS(PA(*), NA(*)) | RCT | X |
Chan (2021) [60] | SG | Young adults | 30 | 70.0 | 20.5 ± 1.5 | Walking on the forest area while holding onto fixed handle bars with the sound of light wind | VR (HMD; HTC vive-pro) | 5 min | 3D downtown area with the sound of white noise | PANAS(PA(+/), NA(*)); CNS(*) | crossover | O |
Seniors | 20 | 90.0 | 72.7 ± 8.8 | Walking in the forest area while moving hands with the sound of light wind | VR (HMD; HTC vive-pro) | 3 min | 3D downtown area with the sound of white noise | Positive(*), CNS(*), self-reported stress(+/) | crossover | |||
Nukarinen (2020) [61] | FI | University students and staff | 24 | 54.2 | 26.0 | Sitting quietly in a forest with the soundscape (1) Rendered 3D (2) VR 360° video shot in the physical location | VR 3D, 360° video(HMD; HTC vive headset) | 10 min | Sitting quietly in a forest in a real natural environment | (1) PANAS(PA(/), NA(+/)); working memory(+/) (2) PANAS(PA(/), NA(*)); working memory(+/) | RCT | X |
Wang (2020) [62] | TW | Generalized anxiety disorder (age 50 to 75) | 77 | 49.4 | 59.1 | (n = 40) Bike riding in a VE of natural scenery including forests, parks, trees and rivers | 3D (Cave VE system) | 20 min | (n = 37) Bike in VE with abstract paintings | Perceived Stress(*); GDA(*) | RCT | O |
Intervention Duration | Observation Position | Interaction | Environment Description | Sensory Type | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
More than 10 min | Under 10 min | In-Forest | Open-View | Interaction | Non-Interaction | Restoration Environment | Real Environment | Visual Only | Visual and Other | |||||||||||
%p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | %p | %p + m | |
Emotional Restoration | 67.6 | 82.4 | 53.1 | 93.9 | 55.6 | 88.9 | 70.0 | 90.0 | 63.6 | 95.5 | 57.4 | 86.9 | 65.7 | 85.7 | 54.2 | 91.7 | 72.0 | 84.0 | 53.4 | 91.4 |
positive | 56.3 | 68.8 | 45.0 | 95.0 | 50.0 | 86.7 | 50.0 | 66.7 | 50.0 | 90.0 | 50.0 | 80.8 | 55.6 | 77.8 | 44.4 | 88.9 | 58.3 | 75.0 | 45.8 | 87.5 |
negative | 77.8 | 94.4 | 58.6 | 93.1 | 60.6 | 90.9 | 78.6 | 100.0 | 75.0 | 100.0 | 62.9 | 91.4 | 76.5 | 94.1 | 60.0 | 93.3 | 84.6 | 92.3 | 58.8 | 94.1 |
Cognitive Restoration | 62.5 | 87.5 | 50.0 | 75.0 | 77.8 | 77.8 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 50.0 | 70.0 | 90.0 | 20.0 | 60.0 | 85.7 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 63.6 | 81.8 |
Stress | 100.0 | 100.0 | 12.5 | 75.0 | 22.2 | 77.8 | - | - | 33.3 | 100.0 | 16.7 | 66.7 | 33.3 | 100.0 | 16.7 | 66.7 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 12.5 | 75 |
Other Effect | 75.0 | 100.0 | 75.0 | 75.0 | 85.7 | 100.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 44.4 | 66.7 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 54.5 | 72.7 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 50.0 | 70.0 | 100 | 100 |
IPQ | - | - | 62.5 | 62.5 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 100 | 100 |
Self-esteem | - | - | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100 | 100 |
Self-efficacy | 50.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 50.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 33.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 50.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 50.0 | 100.0 | - | - |
Numerical Rating | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100 | 100 |
Interaction nature | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | - | - | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100 | 100 |
Including Study | [45,46,47,50,51,54,55,59,61,62] | [42,43,44,48,49,52,53,56,57,58,60] | [43,45,46,47,48,49,51,52,54,55,56,57,60,62] | [42,44,50,53,58,59,61] | [42,47,49,51,53,58,60,62] | [43,44,45,46,48,50,51,52,54,55,56,57,59,61] | [42,43,46,47,49,51,53,55,59,60,61,62] | [44,45,48,50,52,54,56,57,58,61] | [42,51,53,54,55,59,62] | [43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,52,56,57,58,60,61] |
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Lee, M.; Kim, E.; Choe, J.; Choi, S.; Ha, S.; Kim, G. Psychological Effects of Green Experiences in a Virtual Environment: A Systematic Review. Forests 2022, 13, 1625. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101625
Lee M, Kim E, Choe J, Choi S, Ha S, Kim G. Psychological Effects of Green Experiences in a Virtual Environment: A Systematic Review. Forests. 2022; 13(10):1625. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101625
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Mijin, Eunsoo Kim, Jiwon Choe, Seonhye Choi, Siyeon Ha, and Geonwoo Kim. 2022. "Psychological Effects of Green Experiences in a Virtual Environment: A Systematic Review" Forests 13, no. 10: 1625. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101625
APA StyleLee, M., Kim, E., Choe, J., Choi, S., Ha, S., & Kim, G. (2022). Psychological Effects of Green Experiences in a Virtual Environment: A Systematic Review. Forests, 13(10), 1625. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101625