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20 May 2025

Review of the Present State, Development Trends, and Advancements of Power Electronic Converters Used in Robotics

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Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia
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Energies2025, 18(10), 2638;https://doi.org/10.3390/en18102638
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Abstract

This review aims to help researchers, designers, and engineering staff extend operational times and elevate robots’ efficiency. The study represents an up-to-date summary of power electronic converters, their classification, and solutions found by leading robot manufacturers. While some advances have not yet become commonplace in mainstream robotics, their crucial role and promise are evident for expanding automation capabilities in various stationary and mobile applications. The work demonstrates two interconnected directions that are currently applied or are planned to be employed in the future as key factors contributing to reducing losses and accelerating energy transformation. The former direction relates to the implementation of wide bandgap devices that are superior to silicon-based electronics. The second trend concerns the advancements of converter topologies. In this way, the article presents how rectifiers, inverters, and their combinations provide voltage control, current management, and waveform shaping, thereby revealing their potential in improving energy utilisation in industry, transport, agriculture, households, and other sectors of vital activity.

1. Introduction

In light of the growing societal needs in the face of energy scarcity, emerging efficient supply systems are attracting more attention from designers. Numerous challenges for meeting power supply currently comprise a wide range of applications, from a few-watt drivers and sensors to megawatt equipment [1,2].
Robots occupy a prominent place among them. According to [3], over four million industrial robots operate in factories worldwide. By regions, 70% of all newly deployed robots are installed in Asia, 17% in Europe and 10% in the Americas. The growth of robotics accelerates in 2025 and will continue in 2026 and 2027.
As an interdisciplinary science and practice area where energy conversion proves to be an indispensable process, robotics is a subject of numerous systematic reviews, such as in [4,5,6,7,8,9]. They reflect the state of the art and determine the most utilisation trends and advancements in robotic energy systems, aiming to help designers and consumers choose the best supply solutions for specific facilities.
Robots belong to the category of precision machines whose motor drives ensure high torque, good dynamic performance, reliable braking capability, and a wide speed range [10,11]. To power them, developers strive to use the most sustainable green technologies.
Energy is supplied to robots from alternating current (AC) and/or direct current (DC) grids and sources. In mobile robots, the DC rail is usually supported by hybrid storage units composed of a battery (accumulator) and/or fuel cell energy sources (ES) along with additional power sources (PS), such as supercapacitors (ultracapacitors) and/or flywheels (Figure 1) [12]. Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells are also considered a clean energy source for producing DC.
Figure 1. Energy sources and consumers in robotics.
As shown in Figure 1, all storage units are bounded by limited power and energy capacity. The batteries have features of high specific energy at low specific power, life-cycle, capacity of self-discharge, and energy cost. On the other hand, the supercapacitor-based power source exhibits less specific energy, more specific power, fast charging, and a longer lifetime at high self-discharge [5,12,13].
Different PEC configurations that connect them ensure decoupled control and power adjustment (Figure 2). The choice of connection topology varies vastly based on the energy management requirements [14].
Figure 2. The generalised scheme of energy conversion between AC (blue) and DC (red) grids, sources, and consumers.
Supply energy is shared among robot locomotion, manipulation, and control functional blocks that involve various energy consumers, such as motors, servomechanisms, controllers, sensors, and wireless interfaces. Herewith, their networks are often very complicated due to different supply requirements [15]. Voltage and current conversion from ES and PS to the main consumers and between each other is important in robotics. In [4,9,12,16] and other sources, many examples can be found related to energy exchange between batteries, solar panels, supercapacitors, fuel cells, and flywheels. And given that the robot’s movement, control, and sensing are based on semiconductor components, this implies the need for advanced electronics in every solution designed to provide the shape, magnitude, or other parameters of countless electrical quantities.
Despite the availability of multiple studies in the field of power engineering of robots, little attention is paid nowadays to such remarkable building blocks as power electronic converters (PECs). The main energy resources of robots are usually considered to be their power supply systems, improvements in kinematics, statics, dynamics, actuators, sensors, and optimal motion trajectories, whereas existing and prospective types of PECs used in robotic stations are only briefly listed without peculiarities and novelties in energy conversion in this field. Nonetheless, according to the reviews listed above, PECs play an important role in most robots, including their industrial, mobile, collaborative, and farming representatives, as well as robots for kids, solar- and capacitor-powered robots, roadway cleaning robots, robots for disaster-struck regions, etc. The author of [17], who examines the trends in energy processing, sensing, and communication spheres of robotics, notes that the integration of new technologies cannot be possible without advancements in PECs.
The goal and significance of the current research are to present an up-to-date summary of energy converters used in robots, their classification, and solutions found in the scope of the integration of advanced PECs in robotics. The work identifies the crucial role these systems play in enlarging the capabilities of robotic stations across diverse stationary and mobile applications and explains how the PECs provide voltage control, current management, and waveform shaping, thereby optimising energy utilisation. Consequently, this review objects to encourage researchers, designers, and engineering staff to extend operational times and increase the efficiency of robots.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria for references of this review are essential for ensuring their quality and relevance, helping maintain work integrity. References from reputable journals, books, and academic publications directly relate to robots’ PECs. Most of them are recent to provide up-to-date information, while older sources that have lost relevance are omitted. The included studies have reliable methodologies and clear, reproducible results, while unclear researches are not discussed. Preference is given to peer-reviewed publications to ensure the reliability of the information.
Based on the literature analysis, the general categories of PECs considered in this research can be represented by the diagram shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. General categories of PECs.
The use of different PECs—rather than a single uniform one—plays a crucial role in enhancing the decoupling of control and power in modern power systems, especially in applications like robots. A breakdown of why this is beneficial may look as follows:
  • Functional decoupling of control and power flow. By selecting the right configuration for a specific application, engineers can isolate control dynamics (like voltage regulation, frequency control) from power transfer dynamics and achieve faster and more stable control loops without being tightly bound to the power flow constraints.
  • Application-specific optimisation. Each PEC topology has strengths suited to different tasks. Voltage source converters (VSCs) are great for fast dynamic response and flexible active and reactive power adjustment. Multilevel converters are needed for high-voltage applications with lower harmonic distortion. Matrix converters are useful for compact, transformer-less designs with bidirectional power flow. Applying different topologies allows tailoring the PEC to the specific control and power needs of various subsystems.
  • Enhanced modularity and scalability. In complex systems such as robots, the use of various PECs makes it possible to independently optimise each module and simplify the expansion or reconfiguration of the system without changing the entire control architecture.
  • Improved control strategies. Different PECs support different control strategies (e.g., direct torque control, vector control, droop control, etc.). This flexibility allows better decoupling of control objectives (e.g., voltage vs. frequency) and hierarchical control, in which local PECs handle fast dynamics, while central controllers manage slower, system-wide objectives.
  • Fault tolerance and redundancy. Using diverse PEC configurations can improve system robustness; when one type of PEC fails or underperforms, others can compensate, whereas different topologies may handle faults differently, improving overall system resilience.
Foremost, all PECs that link AC and DC grids with consumers and with each other can be distributed among four main classes [18]:
  • AC/DC converters called rectifiers that convert input AC voltage to output DC voltage;
  • DC/AC converters called inverters that form an output AC voltage of adjustable amplitude and frequency from an input DC voltage;
  • AC/AC converters that change the AC frequency, phase, magnitude, and shape;
  • DC/DC converters that adjust the DC voltage and current levels.
The PEC may serve as a VSC, current-source converter (CSC), or impedance-source converter (ISC) capable of decreasing (buck) or increasing (boost, buck-boost) voltage level, utilising either uncontrolled (diode-based), fully-controlled (transistor-based), or semi-controlled (thyristor-based) electronic components. Representatives of each class may have direct, indirect (multilevel), or isolated architecture, and their combinations. Depending on the direction of energy flow, PECs can be unidirectional (energy flows only from the supply to the load) or bidirectional (energy may flow either from the supply to the load or from the load to the supply) systems.
An analysis of multiple scientific works and the company’s documentation reveals the presence in robotics of almost all PEC categories shown in Figure 3, except, perhaps, thyristor-based converters.
The following part of the review is devoted to power electronic systems of contemporary robots, novel electronic components, the current state of rectifiers, inverters, AC/AC and DC/DC converters, and their advanced solutions relevant for robotics.

2. Power Electronic Systems of Robots

2.1. Basic Electronics and Suply Arrangement

The most tangible trends of power electronics development in robotics coincide with the general directions in contemporary automation [19,20,21]:
  • improving the performance of all power semiconductor devices;
  • increase of voltage levels supported by changing the thickness and doping of the semiconductor wafer;
  • reduction of switching time by optimizing the device geometry and topology;
  • managing the carrier lifetime;
  • integration of power, control, and protection circuits in a single intelligent chip.
The PEC, as a core of any power electronic system, is traditionally assembled from uncontrolled diodes, controllable transistors, and passive electronic components such as inductors, transformers, capacitors, and resistors. The supply organisation depends on the distinctive static, dynamic, efficiency, accuracy, and other requirements of the customer, including whether energy is to be consumed through a unidirectional circuit or if this energy can be returned to the power source through a bidirectional PEC [18].
Different amounts of energy and specific power are demanded not only for motors and other actuators but also for sensors, communication systems, and similar robot components. Some of these units are power hungry, while others might only operate periodically. Depending on the power ratings, the heavyweight and lightweight robots need different amplitudes and frequencies of AC supply voltage or variable DC energy to be actuated. In any case, an ability to deliver electricity from a source quickly, cleanly, and affordably is required [15].
Heavyweight robots are designed to handle large and bulky loads in automotive, aerospace, shipbuilding, production, and manufacturing spheres. These robots are built to manage tasks that require significant strength and precision, such as lifting and moving big objects, providing both efficiency and safety in industrial environments. A three-phase high-voltage (HV) supply is used in the following examples.
The FANUC M-2000 series can handle payloads up to 2300 kg and has a reach range of up to 4.7 m. According to the manufacturer, they are ideal for picking and palletising heavy parts, such as complete automotive chassis [22]. The KUKA KR FORTEC Ultra series includes robots with payload capacities of up to 800 kg. They are designed for acting in compact spaces and can move large components with high moments of inertia [23]. KAWASAKI M Series robots have payloads ranging from 350 to 1500 kg. They are known for their smart design, suitable for a variety of heavy-duty operations [24].
In contrast, lightweight robots are intended for a high payload-to-weight ratio at low-voltage (LV) supply. By the estimations of [25], the energy consumption of robots such as UR5, FRANKA EMIKA’s FR3, or KINOVA Gen3 is smaller than their heavier, high-payload counterparts; however, most energy (up to 60–90%) is consumed here by electronic components. Therefore, to optimise this group of robots, it is useful to shift towards efficient robot electronic design instead of effective mass distribution or motion control. This is important for industries where minimal weight is crucial, such as in aerospace, medical fields, collaborative applications, and mobile robotics. For example, the DLR Robot III (LWR III) developed by the German Aerospace Center weighs just 14 kg but at the same time can handle loads up to 14 kg, achieving a 1:1 load-to-weight ratio. Its seven-degrees-of-freedom (DOF) manipulator is flexible and suitable for various tasks [26]. The tiny MIT hopping robot, smaller than a human thumb and weighing less than a paperclip, can leap over obstacles and traverse challenging terrains. It uses less energy than usual drones but can carry about 10 times more payload than a similar-sized aerial robot [27]. Modular robots, designed with specific joints to reduce mass and enhance the payload-to-weight ratio, are often used in situations requiring high accuracy and flexibility [28].
To power lightweight robots, a single-phase or single-cell battery is often sufficient. For example, the “scorpion” family robots [29] have a 6 V battery source, and all their electrical motors are directly fed by this battery. Robots with a 14.8 V supply with 14.8 V MX-106R motors have a similar architecture [30]. Nevertheless, most low-power sensors and controllers are supplied with various voltages. Some of them tend to operate at lower levels; even 1.8 V may be sufficient. Sensors designed for battery-fed circuits often fall into the 3.3 V category, while sensors that need more energy or are designed to interact directly with controllers act at 5 V. Many modules, including integrated controllers, prefer a 5 V input, but others operate within the higher span, from 12 to 20 V. In robots with a LV supply, the motors often require boosting to develop sufficient torque. In several low-power PECs, different integrated buck-boost converters are adopted instead of ordinary boosting. Alternatively, in more powerful stations, foremost in industry and transportation, the three-phase supply grids and multi-cell accumulators feed middle-voltage and HV drives. Buck converters reduce this level for controllers and sensors, less powerful than the motors. Herein, input and output circuits of PECs may be either directly linked to each other or galvanically isolated. On the one hand, the above reasoning leads to a decrease in losses under optimal conditions, but at the same time, such a topology is accompanied by the growth in the system size and causes excessive heating [8]. It should be noted that machine efficiency distinctly deviates at different operating points defined by the motion velocity and payload [31]. The overall efficiency of the complete robotic station depends on many factors, and resulting energy losses are heterogeneous at various modes of movements, related electrical current, voltage levels, temperature, etc.
It is a common situation when different PEC topologies are combined in one or another robot. For example, the real challenge of several applications, such as de-icing robots, lies in providing an uninterrupted power supply to make them work during extremely cold or wet weather. To ensure maximum power transfer, an energy harvesting system described in [32] is supplied from an electromagnetic source, and the specific PEC is composed of a single-phase bridge AC/DC converter and a discontinuously conducting back-boost DC/DC converter.

2.2. Introduction of Advanced Electronic Components

Since the beginning of the semiconductor era, silicon (Si) has dominated the electronics world. Si-based metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) were exploited successfully until the end of the 20th century. As well, Si-diodes and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) still maintain sufficient performance [33]. At the same time, it is well known that operating voltages of Si-diode-based devices tend to drop to an order of 1 V [18]. At LV, all Si-diodes, including the Schottky ones, have an unacceptably large voltage drop compared to the output voltage. This is especially noticeable at a 3.3 V supply, when this voltage drop leads to losses that grow as the voltage decreases. As calculated in [34], a 0.4 V forward voltage drop of a Schottky diode represents a typical efficiency penalty of about 12%, aside from other loss sources. Likewise, the performance of IGBT-based circuits is limited due to low breakdown voltage (the highest voltage rating of commercial IGBTs is about 6.5 kV [20]) and slow switching [35]. Such intrinsic physical borders set a barrier for achieving higher power conversion performance and incur significant losses, thereby reducing the thermal lifespan and the reliability of both the PECs and the actuators that drive robot mechanisms.
According to [31], total converter power dissipation mainly results from both the resistive losses in conductor paths and the switching losses proportional to the switching frequency of IGBTs, usually about 8 kHz at the pulse-width modulation (PWM) frequency of 30–70 kHz. In [4], a detailed analysis is provided on the converter and load losses and on the strategies to decrease them.
To reduce switching and conduction losses and electromagnetic interference (EMI) of electronic switches, zero voltage switching (ZVS) and zero current switching (ZCS) techniques are utilised in all classes of PECs, namely rectifiers, inverters, AC/AC, and DC/DC converters (Figure 3).
At the same time, power and frequency restrictions and environmental pollution issues encourage manufacturers to pay more attention to new media, aiming to replace conventional silicon. Following the super-junction field-effect transistors (SJ-FETs), a production of wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductors began with gallium arsenide, phosphorus, and indium. The subsequent power electronics epoch is triggered by new advances in disruptive replacement technologies, such as ultra-WBG and three-dimensional (3D) packaging, as well as artificial intelligence (AI)-supported design and maintenance technologies as key enablers [33,36,37]. Due to greater voltage capability, faster switching, higher operating temperature, lower conduction resistance, smaller power dissipation, and better efficiency, WBG devices gradually replace Si-diodes, IGBTs, Si-MOSFETs, and SJ-FETs in robotics [38].
The most popular gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC) WBG semiconductors are similar in some ways. At the same time, they have a number of significant distinctions. Their comparison was demonstrated in [33,39]. Today, the renewed data are presented (Figure 4) based on sources from 2023 to 2025.
Figure 4. The featured characteristics of PEC semiconductor components obtained in this review after analysing online resources and experimental databases.
Power-frequency characteristics of Si, SiC, and GaN semiconductor components are also evaluated differently by various researchers depending on production year, testing conditions, cooling environment, etc. According to [39], their ranges look as shown in Figure 5. After comparing many other online resources and company databases where both the commercial and experimental results are presented, a different picture of these dependencies was obtained in this review (Figure 6). In the last diagram, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and multiple thyristors are also presented, including silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs), gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors, and integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCTs).
Figure 5. Operational ranges of semiconductor devices according to [39].
Figure 6. Operational ranges of semiconductor devices obtained after analysing online resources and experimental databases in this review.
WBG-based semiconductor technology enables innovative trends in at least three main areas: energy efficiency and power density, digital power control, and safety of robotic applications [39].
The first direction allows switching frequencies to elevate several times while maintaining efficiency well above 90% and improving form factors by the planar transformers’ adoption. This ensures the packing of more power into smaller kits when manufacturing drives, wireless chargers, and charging stations. The second trend, called power digitalisation, is reflected in the ability of microcontrollers to implement new power management techniques. This trend goes back to 1985, when PECs of the first robots were integrated with bipolar-CMOS/DMOS technology. Later, the Si-MOSFETs, BJTs, and other components, together with non-volatile memory cells, were combined in a single PWM-controlled chip. The third direction calls for the improvement of safety from a human-centric perspective. This evolution of semiconductor technologies plays a key role in the introduction of embedded galvanically isolated protection inside the chips of every separate electronic block, thereby guaranteeing modular safety at the system level.
According to [39], WBG electronics deployment promises the increasing role of robots due to improved efficiency while preserving humans from repetitive tasks. WBG-built robots should become more widespread thanks to new methods based on fast sensors, enhanced environment analysis, object detection, recognition, navigation, and tracking. In particular, there are broad prospects for the use of WBG-based converters on farms, in forestry, and in horticulture due to rising productivity, maintaining the ecosystem for the entire population and reducing the proportion of manual labour. In agriculture, such robots can better identify the state of crops and even determine if they are ready for harvesting.
Another fledgling area of WBG devices is related to soft robotics [40]. The ability to transfer chemically stable WBG materials onto flexible and transparent polymers is valuable for on-site diagnostics and medical treatments, where soft robots can assist with minimally invasive surgeries, whereas traditional surgical tools require large incisions due to their rigidity and bulkiness. To magnify accuracy and effectiveness, these soft robots can be equipped with flexible SiC-based sensors and cameras that can recognise different tissues with the potential for cancer treatment by thermal ablation. In particular, in the case of poor illumination conditions, when recognising different tissues is challenging for surgeons, the impedance sensors provide an alternative in detecting tumour cells when the robot tip contacts tissues. Such an all-in-one surgical robot is capable of biological sensing and medical therapy, where flexible and transparent electronics are well incorporated into the soft actuation system.
It is worth noting that GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) are an order of magnitude smaller in size, weight, and switching capacitance compared to Si-MOSFETs, while keeping losses acceptably low. In [39], GaN HEMTs are considered a nearly ideal solution for the majority of PECs. Normally off HEMTs have neither the p-n junctions nor the avalanche; therefore, they are preferred in switching applications where they can switch voltage above 1 kV at frequencies up to 100 MHz. Additionally, the GaN structure has an extremely thin electron layer with very high mobility between the drain and source. In [41], GaN-MOSFETs replace Si-MOSFETs in facilities from 48 to 1000 V. Nevertheless, as follows from [42], while the SiC-diodes and SiC-MOSFETs are already employed in advanced robots, the suitability of GaN HEMTs has yet to be verified. Promising news comes from several studies, such as [43], that report advances in monolithic bidirectional switches on GaN FETs, also known as four-quadrant switches.
The advantages of GaN devices are applied primarily in control circuits [43]. Their rapid turn-on and turn-off rates are realised primarily in high-frequency PECs, allowing engineers to utilise smaller and lower-cost inductors and capacitors. The author of [44] introduces the latest generation of GaN-integrated circuits, EPC23102/3/4, for robotic stations composed of a switching leg power stage, a bridge gate driver with bootstrap supply, and several protection chains that simplify the PEC design and ensure a noticeable volume economy. The presented innovative solutions, such as active joints for humanoid robots, vastly improve actuators thanks to their compact and light compositions. Moreover, the renewed drives do not overheat due to minor switching losses of the GaN devices along with lowered BLDC machine losses at higher quality of the supply waveforms. The GaN-based motor drivers for mobile robots described in [17] have very small dimensions and high efficiency, resulting in longer battery lifespan and reduced thermal management requirements. Application of the advanced monolithic 1200 V, 20 A BiDFETs and 600 V GaN-based four-quadrant drives [43] ensures low conduction voltage drop and high switching frequency for bidirectional solutions.
As for the SiC devices, they switch more slowly than GaN [17,33,45]. SiC-MOSFETs combine the advantages of both the IGBTs and the Si-MOSFETs. They have a small on-state resistance at a significant voltage rating (similar to IGBTs) but less switching losses than Si-MOSFETs, which brings them closer to an ideal switch [46]. SiC-MOSFETs also handle more power at faster switching without compromising system efficiency. In PECs used for propulsion in mobile robotics, the PWM frequency grows up to several tens of kilohertz [35]. Even though the SiC-MOSFETs are generally more expensive than Si-MOSFETs, their high-voltage, high-current, and high-frequency capabilities promote the reduction of the size and cost of PEC inductors and transformers. This, in turn, leads to avoiding bulky line filters. The need for cooling also falls, and sometimes such components do not require heatsinks at all [47], resulting in situations where devices of more than 6.5 kV are developed on SiC-MOSFETs without significant losses. In its turn, this reduces robots’ volume, weight, and cost [48].
The key drawback of SiC-MOSFETs is that they require a higher gate voltage than Si-MOSFETs. To turn on a device with a small on-resistance, SiC transistors require a gate voltage of 18 to 20 V, while the same Si-MOSFETs require half the consumption to ensure full conductivity. In addition, to switch off, −3 to −5 V have to be applied to the SiC-MOSFET gate. Special gate driver chips have been developed to resolve these issues.
Considering the great prospects of WBG devices, especially bidirectional GaN switches, the capabilities and efficiency of robotic systems are set to revolutionise robotics in the coming years. Here are some key trends to watch:
  • thanks to increased efficiency and performance, WBG transistors offer reduced power losses and improved thermal management, which are crucial for high-performance robotic applications;
  • the ability of WBG switches to operate at higher frequencies will enable the development of more compact and lightweight robotic systems, enhancing mobility and functionality;
  • since WBG materials are known for their robustness and ability to operate at higher temperatures, this makes them ideal for harsh environments and demanding applications in robotics, where reliability and durability are paramount;
  • the combination of WBG devices with AI technologies promises to enable predictive maintenance and real-time health monitoring of robotic systems.

7. Conclusions

Designers, researchers, and engineering staff face several hands-on challenges during robot powering. To resolve them, this work provides an up-to-date summary of PECs used for robot supply, their classification, and solutions adopted to integrate advanced power electronics into robotics. After studying numerous online resources and company databases where commercial and experimental results are presented, the comparative power-frequency characteristics of Si, SiC, and GaN semiconductors used in robotic PECs are derived in this research. The literature review opens at least two directions that PEC manufacturers choose nowadays and should employ in the future to achieve higher efficiency and a faster conversion rate. The first method relates to implementing WBG devices that exceed Si-based electronics. The second trend in improving energy conversion is to incorporate advanced PEC topologies. They are shared DC-link circuits, active and synchronous rectifiers, various ISCs with ZVS and ZCS, direct (matrix) AC/AC converters, indirect isolated networks, and wireless charging systems, including their multi-output and dynamic in-motion charging representatives. The review opens broad prospects of PEC design, aimed at reducing robot masses, increasing compactness, and promoting efficiency growth.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, and investigation, V.V.; data curation and writing, Z.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
3Dthree-dimensional
AIartificial intelligence
ACalternating current
BJTbipolar junction transistor
BLDCbrushless DC
CCconstant current
CMOScomplementary MOS
CSCcurrent-source converter
CSIcurrent-source inverter
CVconstant voltage
DCdirect current
DMOSdouble-diffused MOS
DOFdegree of freedom
EMIelectromagnetic interference
ESenergy source
FETfield-effect transistor
GaNgallium nitride
GTOgate turn-off
HEMThigh electron mobility transistor
HVhigh voltage
IGBTinsulated-gate bipolar transistor
IGCTintegrated gate commutated thyristor
ISCimpedance-source converter
KERSkinetic energy recovery system
LVlow voltage
MOSmetal-oxide semiconductor
MOSFETmetal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
PECpower electronic converter
PIDproportional-integral-derivative
PMSMpermanent magnet synchronous motor
PSpower source
PVphotovoltaic
PWMpulse-width modulation
RMSroot mean square
SCRsilicon controlled rectifier
Sisilicon
SiCsilicon carbide
SJ-FETsuper-junction FET
SRMswitch-reluctance motor
SVMspace-vector modulation
VSCvoltage-source converter
VSIvoltage-source inverter
WBGwide bandgap
WPTwireless power transfer
ZCSzero current switching
ZSIZ-source inverter
ZVSzero voltage switching

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