Journal of Eye Movement Research

3 pages, 204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Movements in Real and Simulated Driving and Navigation Control—Foreword to the Special Issue

by Rudolf Groner and Enkelejda Kasneci

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-3; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.0 - 3 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 66

The control of technological systems by human operators has been the object of study for many decades. The increasing complexity in the digital age has made the optimization of the interaction between system and human operator particularly necessary. In the present thematic issue, [...] Read more.

The control of technological systems by human operators has been the object of study for many decades. The increasing complexity in the digital age has made the optimization of the interaction between system and human operator particularly necessary. In the present thematic issue, ten exemplary articles are presented, ranging from observational field studies to experimental work in highly complex navigation simulators. For the human operator, the processes of attention play a crucial role, which are captured in the contributions listed in this thematic issue by eye-tracking devices. Full article

13 pages, 5499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond the Tracked Line of Sight—Evaluation of the Peripheral Usable Field of View in a Simulator Setting

by Jan Bickerdt, Hannes Wendland, David Geisler, Jan Sonnenberg and Enkelejda Kasneci

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-13; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.9 - 26 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 59

Abstract

Combining advanced gaze tracking systems with the latest vehicle environment sensors opens up new fields of applications for driver assistance. Gaze tracking enables researchers to determine the location of a fixation, and under consideration of the visual saliency of the scene, to predict [...] Read more.

Combining advanced gaze tracking systems with the latest vehicle environment sensors opens up new fields of applications for driver assistance. Gaze tracking enables researchers to determine the location of a fixation, and under consideration of the visual saliency of the scene, to predict visual perception of objects. The perceptual limits, for stimulus identification, found in literature have mostly been determined in laboratory conditions using isolated stimuli, with a fixed gaze point, on a single screen with limited coverage of the field of view. The found limits are usually reported as hard limits. Such commonly used limits are therefore not applicable to settings with a wide field of view, natural viewing behavior and multi-stimuli. As handling of sudden, potentially critical driving maneuvers heavily relies on peripheral vision, the peripheral limits for feature perception need to be included in the determined perceptual limits. To analyze the human visual perception of different, simultaneously occurring, object changes (shape, color, movement) we conducted a study with 50 participants, in a driving simulator and we propose a novel way to determine perceptual limits, which is more applicable to driving scenarios. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 11775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model-Based Estimation of the State of Vehicle Automation as Derived from the Driver’s Spontaneous Visual Strategies

by Damien Schnebelen, Camilo Charron and Franck Mars

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-12; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.10 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 62

Abstract

When manually steering a car, the driver’s visual perception of the driving scene and his or her motor actions to control the vehicle are closely linked. Since motor behaviour is no longer required in an automated vehicle, the sampling of the visual scene [...] Read more.

When manually steering a car, the driver’s visual perception of the driving scene and his or her motor actions to control the vehicle are closely linked. Since motor behaviour is no longer required in an automated vehicle, the sampling of the visual scene is affected. Autonomous driving typically results in less gaze being directed towards the road centre and a broader exploration of the driving scene, compared to manual driving. To examine the corollary of this situation, this study estimated the state of automation (manual or automated) on the basis of gaze behaviour. To do so, models based on partial least square regressions were computed by considering the gaze behaviour in multiple ways, using static indicators (percentage of time spent gazing at 13 areas of interests), dynamic indicators (transition matrices between areas) or both together. Analysis of the quality of predictions for the different models showed that the best result was obtained by considering both static and dynamic indicators. However, gaze dynamics played the most important role in distinguishing between manual and automated driving. This study may be relevant to the issue of driver monitoring in autonomous vehicles. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 747 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Eye–Computer Interaction Interface Design: Ergonomic Investigations of the Optimum Target Size and Gaze-Triggering Dwell Time

by Ya-feng Niu, Yue Gao, Cheng-qi Xue, Ya-ting Zhang and Li-xin Yang

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-14; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.8 - 25 Sep 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 95

Abstract

Interactive feedback of interface elements and low level of spatial accuracy are two main key points for the interaction research in the Eye-computer interaction system. This study tried to solve these two problems from the perspective of human–computer interactions and ergonomics. Two experiments [...] Read more.

Interactive feedback of interface elements and low level of spatial accuracy are two main key points for the interaction research in the Eye-computer interaction system. This study tried to solve these two problems from the perspective of human–computer interactions and ergonomics. Two experiments were conducted to explore the optimum target size and gaze-triggering dwell time of the eye–computer interaction (ECI) system. Experimental Series 1 was used as the pre-experiment to identify the size that has a greater task completion rate. Experimental Series 2 was used as the main experiment to investigate the optimum gaze-triggering dwell time by using a comprehensive evaluation of the task completion rate, reaction time, and NASA-TLX (Task Load Index). In Experimental Series 1, the optimal element size was determined to be 256 × 256p x 2. The conclusion of Experimental Series 2 was that when the dwell time is set to 600 ms, the efficiency of the interface is the highest, and the task load of subjects is minimal as well. Finally, the results of Experiment Series 1 and 2 have positive effects on improving the usability of the interface. The optimal control size and the optimal dwell time obtained from the experiments have certain reference and application value for interface design and software development of the ECI system. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Tracking for Assessment of Situational Awareness in Bridge Resource Management Training

by Oguz Atik

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-18; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.7 - 16 Apr 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 92

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to experiment eye tracking in situational awareness assessment in Bridge Resource Management training of ship officers who play a critical role in maritime accidents. The maritime industry focuses on human factor developing and improving regulations including training [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to experiment eye tracking in situational awareness assessment in Bridge Resource Management training of ship officers who play a critical role in maritime accidents. The maritime industry focuses on human factor developing and improving regulations including training requirements to prevent marine casualties. The mandatory Bridge Resource Management training as per international regulations includes assessment of situational awareness of trainees in full mission ship bridge simulators. The study involves capturing and analyzing eye movement data from maritime cadets and ship officers with sea experience in a simulation exercise. An eye tracking analysis software and eye tracking glasses are used for the study. Inferential and descriptive analyses were both used to validate the results. Significant differences were found between fixation duration measurements of novice cadets and experienced officers. Heat map visualizations also revealed differences in focuses of attention among participants. The evaluations of the certified simulator assessors are considered as the ground truth, and the results were compared to and discussed accordingly. The results show that the eye tracking technology is a valuable complementary tool for assessment of situational awareness in a simulator environment, utilized with the existing conventional observation and performance measurement methods. The study reveals that eye tracking provides the assessor with novel data in simulator based maritime training, such as focus of attention, which contributes to the evaluation of the situational awareness. The study, therefore, contributes to maritime education aiming to improve the effectiveness of Bridge Resource Management training. It also contributes to scientific research on eye movement in maritime field by proposing the integration of eye tracking in the Bridge Resource Management training. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 16598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Evaluation of Eye Behavior for Marine Operation Training—A Pilot Study

by Runze Mao, Guoyuan Li, Hans Petter Hildre and Houxiang Zhang

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-14; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.6 - 6 Dec 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 59

Abstract

This paper presents a new analysis approach for evaluating situation awareness in marine operation training. Taking advantage of eye tracking technology, the situation awareness reflected by visual attention can be visualized and analyzed. A scanpath similarity comparison method that allows group-wise comparisons is [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new analysis approach for evaluating situation awareness in marine operation training. Taking advantage of eye tracking technology, the situation awareness reflected by visual attention can be visualized and analyzed. A scanpath similarity comparison method that allows group-wise comparisons is proposed. The term ‘Expert zone’ is introduced to evaluate the performance of novice operator based on expert operators’ eye movement. It is used to evaluate performance of novice operators in groups in certain segment of marine operation. A pilot study of crane lifting experiment was carried out. Two target stages of operation for the load descending until total immersion to the seabed were selected and analyzed for both novice and expert operators. The group-wise evaluation method is proven to be able to access the performance of the operator. Besides that, from data analysis of fixation-related source and scanpath, the similarities and dissimilarities of eye behavior between novice and expert is concluded with the scanpath mode in target segment. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 8636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Tracking Use in Researching Driver Distraction: A Scientometric and Qualitative Literature Review Approach

by Tina Cvahte Ojsteršek and Darja Topolšek

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-30; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.5 - 30 Sep 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 134

Abstract

Many factors affect road safety, but research constantly shows that drivers are the major cause of critical situations that could potentially lead to a traffic accident in road traffic. Visual information is a crucial part of input information into the driving process; therefore, [...] Read more.

Many factors affect road safety, but research constantly shows that drivers are the major cause of critical situations that could potentially lead to a traffic accident in road traffic. Visual information is a crucial part of input information into the driving process; therefore, distractions of overt visual attention can potentially have a large impact on driving safety. Modern eye tracking technology enables researchers to gain precise insight into the direction and movement of a driver’s gaze during various distractions. As this is an evolving and currently very relevant field of road safety research, the present paper sets out to analyse the current state of the research field and the most relevant publications that use eye tracking for research of distractions to a driver’s visual attention. With the use of scientometrics and a qualitative review of the 139 identified publications that fit the inclusion criteria, the results revealed a currently expanding research field. The narrow research field is interdisciplinary in its core, as evidenced by the dispersion of publication sources and research variables. The main research gaps identified were performing research in real conditions, including a wider array of distractions, a larger number of participants, and increasing interdisciplinarity of the field with more author cooperation outside of their primary co-authorship networks. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Pilots’ Cognitive Load from Ocular Parameters Through Simulation and In-Flight Studies

by M. Dilli Babu, D. V. JeevithaShree, Gowdham Prabhakar, Kamal Preet Singh Saluja, Abhay Pashilkar and Pradipta Biswas

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-16; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.3 - 2 Sep 2019

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 204

Abstract

Eye tracking is the process of measuring either the point of gaze (where one is looking) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. This paper investigated use of eye gaze trackers in military aviation environment to automatically estimate pilot’s cognitive [...] Read more.

Eye tracking is the process of measuring either the point of gaze (where one is looking) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. This paper investigated use of eye gaze trackers in military aviation environment to automatically estimate pilot’s cognitive load from ocular parameters. In the first study, we used a fixed base variable stability flight simulator with longitudinal tracking task and collected data from 14 military pilots. In a second study, we undertook four test flights with BAES Hawk Trainer and Jaguar aircrafts doing air to ground attack training missions and constant G level turn maneuvers up to +5G. Our study found that ocular parameters like rate of fixation is significantly different in different flying conditions. It also significantly correlated with rate of descent during air to ground dive training task, normal load factor (G) of the aircraft during constant G level turn maneuvers and pilot’s control inceptor and tracking error in simulation tasks. Results from our studies can be used for real time estimation of pilots’ cognitive load, providing suitable warnings and alerts to the pilot in cockpit and training of military pilots on cognitive load management during operational missions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of an Active Visuomotor Steering Task on Covert Attention

by Samuel Tuhkanen, Jami Pekkanen, Esko Lehtonen and Otto Lappi

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-19; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.1 - 8 Aug 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 64

Abstract

In complex dynamic tasks such as driving it is essential to be aware of potentially important targets in peripheral vision. While eye tracking methods in various driving tasks have provided much information about drivers’ gaze strategies, these methods only inform about overt attention [...] Read more.

In complex dynamic tasks such as driving it is essential to be aware of potentially important targets in peripheral vision. While eye tracking methods in various driving tasks have provided much information about drivers’ gaze strategies, these methods only inform about overt attention and provide limited grounds to assess hypotheses concerning covert attention. We adapted the Posner cue paradigm to a dynamic steering task in a driving simulator. The participants were instructed to report the presence of peripheral targets while their gaze was fixed to the road. We aimed to see whether and how the active steering task and complex visual stimulus might affect directing covert attention to the visual periphery. In a control condition, the detection task was performed without a visual scene and active steering. Detection performance in bends was better in the control task compared to corresponding performance in the steering task, indicating that active steering and the complex visual scene affected the ability to distribute covert attention. Lower targets were discriminated slower than targets at the level of the fixation circle in both conditions. We did not observe higher discriminability for on-road targets. The results may be accounted for by either bottom-up optic flow biasing of attention, or top-down saccade planning. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Eye Tracking for Assessment of Electronic Navigation Competency in Maritime Training

by Oguz Atik and Omer Arslan

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-15; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.2 - 30 Jul 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 116

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to experiment an assessment method using eye tracking technology in simulator based electronic navigation training of ship officers who play a critical role in maritime accidents. The maritime industry focuses on human factor developing and improving regulations, [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to experiment an assessment method using eye tracking technology in simulator based electronic navigation training of ship officers who play a critical role in maritime accidents. The maritime industry focuses on human factor developing and improving regulations, training requirements and technology to prevent marine casualties. The mandatory use of simulations in maritime training as per international regulations includes competency assessment as a vital process. The study involves capturing and analyzing eye movement data from ship officers with sea experience in simulation exercises for assessing competency. A system including an eye tracking analysis software and eye tracking glasses is used for the study. Inferential and descriptive analysis were both used to validate the results. Significant differences were found between electronic navigation competencies of expert and novice ship officers. The results show that the eye tracking technology is a valuable tool for assessment of electronic navigation competency. Comparing novice and expert ship officers’ data proves that eye tracking provides in-depth data which is not obtainable by the available observation methods used in simulation training. The findings show that eye tracking provides the assessor novel data, such as focus of attention, which enables evaluation of the cognitive process and competency. The study, therefore, contributes to maritime education aiming to improve the effectiveness of simulator based maritime training which is vital for maritime safety. It also contributes to scientific research on eye movement in maritime field by proposing the integration of eye tracking in competency assessment in electronic navigation training as a part of simulation based maritime education. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Pilot Selection Process by Using Eye-Tracking Tools

by Slaviša Vlačić, Aleksandar Knežević, Saptarshi Mandal, Sanja Rođenkov and Panos A. Vitsas

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2019, 12(3), 1-26; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.4 - 18 Feb 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 109

Abstract

This paper improves the understanding of the use of eye-tracking tools in the pilot selection process. Research of eye movement and attention distribution of candidate pilots may provide the capability for visual behavior prediction in more demanding flight training phases. The research included [...] Read more.

This paper improves the understanding of the use of eye-tracking tools in the pilot selection process. Research of eye movement and attention distribution of candidate pilots may provide the capability for visual behavior prediction in more demanding flight training phases. The research included psychological testing, flight screening of subjects and their achievements in a flight simulator in combination with an eye-tracking device. Participants were divided into three categories: high performance, average performance, and low performance and separately regarded through psychological testing results and flight screening results. An eye-tracking device tracked visual behavior of subjects through the scope and speed of visual perception. The number of fixations and revisits recorded during the simulated visual flight conditions measured the difference in visual response between subjects. Comparison of results showed a positive correlation with psychological test results. Correlation with flight screening selection was not confirmed. We used the new network-based approach with three target importance measures to overcome the shortcomings of traditional eye movement metrics. The results of the adopted network approach presented in the form of graphs and analysis of normalized importance measures showed that it was possible to extract specific saccade strategy for each participant. Discovered differences between them positively detected week ones. In this way, Eye-tracking tools can potentially improve the pilot selection process and complement other tests and assessment methods. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 12, Issue 3 (July 2019) – 11 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI