Climate-Driven Adaptation, Household Capital, and Nutritional Outcomes among Farmers in Eswatini
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Area
2.3. Preliminary Data
2.4. Nutrition
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.5.1. Adaptation and Nutrition
2.5.2. Adaptation, Nutrition, and Capital
2.5.3. The Role of Individual Adaptations
3. Results
3.1. Adaptation and Nutrition
3.2. Adaptation, Nutrition, and Capital
3.3. The Role of Individual Adaptations
3.4. Drivers of Adaptation
4. Discussion
4.1. Adaptation, Nutrition, and Capital
4.2. The Role of Individual Adaptations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary File 1Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Household Survey
Enumerator Name | Translator name |
Date of Survey | Community Name |
Time survey start | Time Survey End |
Sex of Interviewee(s) | Household head (Y/N) |
Household Code |
Section A-Homestead Data | ||
A.1 | Date of Settlement at homestead | │_____________________________________│ |
A.2 | What is the main type of roof? | |
1. Thatched Grass | ||
2. Corrugated Iron | ||
3. Other (specify) | │_____________________________________│ | |
A.3 | What is the main type of floor? | |
1. Mud | ||
2. Cement/stone | ||
3. Other (Specify) | │_____________________________________│ | |
A.4 | What is the main type of floor? | |
1. Mud | ||
2. Cement/stone | ||
3. Other (Specify) | │_____________________________________│ | |
A.5 | What is the main type of wall? | |
1. Mud and sticks | ||
2. Mud and stones | ||
3. Cement, cinderblock | ||
4. Other (specify) | │_____________________________________│ | |
A.6 | Do you have electricity at the homestead? | |
1. No | ||
2. Yes | │_____________________________________│ | |
A.7 | What fuel is used to cook with? | |
1. Dung | ||
2. Wood | ||
3. Coal/charcoal | ||
4. LPG | ||
5. Kerosene | ||
6. Electricity | │_____________________________________│ | |
A.7 | How many children <16 years old live at the homestead? | │_____________________________________│ |
A.8 | Answer the Following for All Family Members 16 and Older |
HH ID | ID Code | Sex | Age | Marital Status | Literate (Yes/No) | Years of Education | Months/Years at Homestead | Principal Occupation | Secondary Occupation |
01 | |||||||||
02 | |||||||||
03 | |||||||||
04 | |||||||||
05 | |||||||||
06 |
B.1 | What is the primary livelihood activity?
|
B.2 | What is the secondary livelihood activity? (Use codes from above |
B.3 | What is the tertiary livelihood activity? (Use codes from above) |
B.4 | Does the primary livelihood activity account for more than 50 percent of your household’s livelihood?
|
B.5 | Who is the main breadwinner in the household? (Use individual ID Code) |
B.6 | For household members who work off-farm, how far do they travel for work, on average?
|
B.7 | What is the primary food source?
|
B.8 | What is the secondary food source? (Use codes from question B.7) |
B.9 | What are the primary crops that you cultivate at home (20% or more of total planted crops)? |
B.9 | In a good year, how many bags does your household harvest?
|
Section C-Financial Capital | |
C.1 | Does your household own any of the following? (1 if No, 2 if yes) Radio/Cassette player? Bicycle? Motorcycle/scooter? Refrigerator? Tractor? Plow? Television? Telephone/cell phone? |
C.2 | What is your average total monthly household income?
|
C.3 | When was the last time someone in your household received money for work (a paycheck), government money, money for services, or payment for product sales?
|
Section D-Natural Capital | |
D.1 | Have you planted anything this season?
|
D.2 | If no, do you plan to plant this season?
|
D.3 | If yes, what proportion of your farmland are you currently using for farming?
|
D.4 | What percentage of your farmland did you farm last year?
|
D.5 | Does your household collect wild food?
|
D.6 | What proportion of your diet comes from wild foods?
|
D.7 | How far do you travel to collect wild foods?
|
D.8 | How far do you travel to collect fuel wood?
|
D.9 | Please look at the map and outline the following: Where your farmland is located Where you travel to collect firewood Where you travel to collect wild foods |
Section E-Physical Capital | ||||
E.1 | How far (Km) do you travel to reach the [FACILITY]:
| How do you travel to get to [FACILITY]?
| How long does it take you to reach [FACILITY]? | |
Hours | Minutes | |||
Primary School | ||||
Middle School | ||||
Secondary School | ||||
Clinic | ||||
Market |
E.2 | How many do you own of each of the following?
|
E.3 | What is the main source for your drinking water?
|
E.4 | How far is this drinking source from the homestead?
|
E.5 | How many months of the year is this water source available?
|
E.6 | What is the distance to the water sources used for livestock (cattle)?
|
Section F-Social Capital | |
F.1 | Are you or any member of your household a member of a community organization?
|
F.2 | How many times in the last month did you attend: Church Community Meeting Organizational meeting |
F.3 | Do you or any household member have any leadership positions in the community?
|
F.4 | If so, how long have they held the leadership position |
F.5 | How many times in the last month have you received gifts from friends or community member? |
F.6 | Does your household trade goods with your neighbors?
|
F.7 | If, so, how often do you trade, on average?
|
F.8 | Does your household work for your neighbors?
|
F.9 | If, so, how often do you work for your neighbors, on average?
|
F.10 | Do you hire your neighbors?
|
F.11 | If, so, how often do you hire your neighbors, on average?
|
F.12 | Where do you get information about farming and weather?
|
Section G-Health and Food Security | |
G.1 | In the past 24 h how many times have household women eaten? |
G.2 | In the past 24 h how many times have household men eaten? |
G.3 | In the past 24 h how many times have household children eaten? |
G.4 | In the past 24 HOURS has anyone in your household eaten the following? (1 if No, 2 if yes) Maize Rice Sorghum Other grains? Bread Chicken Fish Beef Pork Other meat Eggs Beans Vegetables Milk or dairy Other food (specify) │______________________________________________________│ |
G.5 | In the past 7 DAYS has anyone in your household eaten the following? (1 if No, 2 if yes) Maize Rice Sorghum Other grains? Bread Chicken Fish Beef Pork Other meat Eggs Beans Vegetables Milk or dairy Other food (specify) │______________________________________________________│ |
G.6 | How many household children 0–5 years old have died recently (in the past 2 years)? |
G.7 | (If 0, Skip to next question) By what cause(s)? _____________________________________________ |
G.8 | How many household adults have died recently (in the past 2 years)? |
G.9 | In the past 30 days, how many household members have visited a hospital or clinic? |
Section H-Drought & Adaptation | |
H.1 | How do you know when there is a drought? (What cues, evidence, and trends do you use)? _________________________________________________________________________________________ |
H.2 | Thinking back over the last 30 years (or when you first moved to the community) how have the impacts of drought changed compared to the past?
|
H.4 | In the past 5 years, have you and your household experienced drought? 1. No 2. Yes |
H.5 | Excluding the last 6 months, has your household done any of the following over the past 5 years in response to drought? (1 if no, 2 if yes) Planting Alternative crops Conservation farming Bee Keeping Raising Indigenous Chickens Collecting natural resources to sell Handicrafts Sending family to work in cities Sending family to work in Sugarcane Participated in training provided by aid organizations Other (specify) ________________________________________________________________________________________ |
H.6 | What were the results of each adaptation (prompt if necessary, increase in production, increased income, increased food consumption, etc.). Planting Alternative crops ________________________________________________________________________________________ Conservation farming ________________________________________________________________________________________ Bee Keeping ________________________________________________________________________________________ Raising Indigenous Chickens ________________________________________________________________________________________ Collecting natural resources to sell ________________________________________________________________________________________ Handicrafts ________________________________________________________________________________________ Sending family to work in cities ________________________________________________________________________________________ Sending family to work in Sugarcane ________________________________________________________________________________________ Participated in training provided by aid organizations ________________________________________________________________________________________ Other (specify) ________________________________________________________________________________________ |
H.7 | In response to drought this year, in the last 6 months, has your household done any of the following? (1 if no, 2 if yes) Planting Alternative crops Conservation farming Bee Keeping Raising Indigenous Chickens Collecting natural resources to sell Handicrafts Sending family to work in cities Sending family to work in Sugarcane Participated in training provided by aid organizations Other (specify) ________________________________________________________________________________________ |
If Adaptation Was Done in the Last 6 Months Ask | |
I.1 | What did [the adaptation] involve, describe what you and your household changed? __________________________________________________________________________________________ |
I.2 | How much money did your household spend to do [the adaptation]?
|
I.3 | Did [the adaptation] require more time spent working or more people? If so, how much _________________________________________________________________________________________ |
I.4 | How has [the adaptation] impacted the following
Total number of meals eaten by the household │________________│ Amount of food eaten per meal by the household │________________│ Total Household Income │________________│ |
I.5 | Did [the adaptation] have any other impacts to you or your household? ____________________________________________________________________________________ |
If the Adaptation WASN’T Done, Ask the Following Questions | |
I.6 | Which of the following BEST explains why you didn’t do [the adaptation]?
|
I.7 | Which of the following are additional reasons why you didn’t do [the adaptation]?
|
I.8 | Are there other things you would like to be able to do in response to drought that you can’t? Specify________________________________________________________________________________________ |
Appendix B. A Qualitative Description of Each Adaptation Included in Our Survey in eSwatini in 2016
Appendix C
Adaptation | Most Commonly Cited Barrier |
---|---|
Planting drought/heat resistant crops | Insufficient money/income |
Conservation farming | Insufficient training/knowledge |
Bee keeping | Insufficient training/knowledge |
Chicken husbandry | Insufficient money/income |
Selling natural resources | Insufficient Market/Infrastructure |
Selling crafts | Insufficient training/knowledge |
Other salaried off-farm work | Insufficient household labor available |
Participating in local organizations | Insufficient opportunities/availability |
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Average Z Scores (SD) | N Malnourished (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Months) | N | HAZ | WAZ | WHZ | HAZ < −2 | WAZ < −2 | WHZ < −2 |
0–12 | 47 | −0.39 (2.7) | 0.21 (2.4) | 1.08 (2.9) | 11 (23) | 8 (17) | 6 (13) |
13–24 | 51 | −1.47 (2.2) | −0.42 (1.9) | 0.39 (2.5) | 19 (37) | 9 (18) | 10 (20) |
25–36 | 43 | −1.91 (1.7) | −0.31 (1.5) | 0.91 (1.8) | 22 (51) | 6 (14) | 2 (5) |
37–48 | 53 | −0.60 (2.2) | −0.69 (1.4) | −0.55 (2.3) | 10 (19) | 8(15) | 14 (26) |
49–60 | 55 | −1.39 (1.5) | −0.67 (1.5) | 0.19 (2.0) | 15 (27) | 9 (16) | 5 (9) |
Total | 249 | −1.16 (2.1) | −0.41 (1.8) | 0.34 (2.4) | 77 (31) | 40 (16) | 37 (15) |
Adaptation | Households Attempting (N) | Reported Success Rate |
---|---|---|
Planting drought/heat resistant crops | 51% (152) | 28% (43) |
Conservation farming | 30% (88) | 33% (29) |
Bee keeping | 6% (19) | 5% (1) |
Chicken husbandry | 23% (69) | 67% (46) |
Selling natural resources | 19% (55) | 98% (54) |
Selling crafts | 22% (66) | 86% (57) |
Other salaried off-farm work | 24% (72) | 32% (23) |
Participating in local organizations | 17% (50) | 36% (18) |
Predictor Variables | Weight for Age (Undernutrition) | Weight for Height (Wasting) | Height for Age (Stunting) |
---|---|---|---|
Adaptation Attempts | - | 0.34 | - |
Ratio of successful to attempted adaptations | −1.28 | −1.77 | - |
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Bailey, K.M.; McCleery, R.A.; Barnes, G.; McKune, S.L. Climate-Driven Adaptation, Household Capital, and Nutritional Outcomes among Farmers in Eswatini. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4063. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214063
Bailey KM, McCleery RA, Barnes G, McKune SL. Climate-Driven Adaptation, Household Capital, and Nutritional Outcomes among Farmers in Eswatini. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(21):4063. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214063
Chicago/Turabian StyleBailey, Karen M., Robert A. McCleery, Grenville Barnes, and Sarah L. McKune. 2019. "Climate-Driven Adaptation, Household Capital, and Nutritional Outcomes among Farmers in Eswatini" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 21: 4063. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214063