A Review of Skin-Wearable Sensors for Non-Invasive Health Monitoring Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Systematic Review of Skin-Wearable Health Monitoring Strategies
3. Electrical Signals Related to Neural Activity
3.1. Neural Electrical Signal Monitoring Mechanism
3.2. Neural Electrical Signal for Skin-Wearable Devices
4. Thermoelectrical Signal Measurement
4.1. Thermoelectrical Signal Monitoring Mechanism
4.2. Thermoelectrical Signal for Skin-Wearable Devices
5. Photoelectrical Signal Measurement
5.1. Photoelectrical Signal Monitoring Mechanism
5.2. Photoelectric Signal for Skin-Wearable Devices
6. Mechanical Signal Measurement
6.1. Mechanical Signal Monitoring Mechanism
6.2. Mechanical Signal for Skin-Wearable Devices
6.3. Acoustic Signals Measurement
7. Electrochemical Signal Measurement
7.1. Electrochemical Signal Monitoring Mechanism
Analyte | Concentration in Sweat [196] | Method | Substrate | Recognition Element | Refs | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sodium | 10–100 mM | Potentiometry | Temporary tattoo | Sodium ionophore | [218] | |
Adhesive Tape | Sodium ionophore | [219] | ||||
PMMA | Sodium ionophore | [220] | ||||
PET | Sodium ionophore | [200,221] | ||||
Chloride | 10–100 mM | Polyester | Ag/AgCl | [201] | ||
PET | Ag/AgCl | [200] | ||||
Potassium | 1–18.5 mM | PET | Potassium ionophore | [221] | ||
Calcium | 0.41–12.4 mM | PET | Calcium ionophore | [222] | ||
Ammonia | 0.1–1 mM | Temporary tattoo | Nonactin ionophore | [223] | ||
Heavy metal | Pb | <100 | Square-wave stripping voltammetry | PET | Bismuth, gold | [224] |
Cd | <100 | PET | Bismuth | [224] | ||
Hg | <100 | PET | Gold | [224] | ||
Cu | 100–1000 | PET | Gold | [224] | ||
Zn | 100–1560 | PET | Bismuth | [224] | ||
Temporary tattoo | Bismuth | [225] | ||||
pH | 3–8 (4–6.8) | Potentiometry | PET | Hydrogen ionophore | [222] | |
Temporary tattoo | Poly(aniline) | [226] | ||||
PMMA | Poly(aniline) | [220] | ||||
Colorimetry | PMMA | Bromophenol green (BCG), bromophenol purple (BCP) | [227] | |||
PDMS | bromophenol purple (BCP) | [228] | ||||
Thermal properties | 36.5–37.5 °C | PET | Thermochromic liquid crystals | [229] | ||
Lactate | 5–20 nM | Chronoamperometry | Temporary tattoo | Lactate oxidase | [230] | |
Parylene | Lactate oxidase | [231] | ||||
PMMA | Lactate oxidase | [220] | ||||
PET | Lactate oxidase | [221] | ||||
Glucose | 10–200 | PET | Glucose oxidase | [200,221] |
7.2. Electrochemical Signal for Skin-Wearable Devices
8. Future Challenges and Opportunities
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sensor Classification | Sensing Mechanism | Measurement Signal | Conductive Material | Signal | Measure Locations | Treatment | Substrate | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Neural electrical sensor | Electrode | ECG | CNT | Voltage | Chest | Cardiology | PEIE/CNT/PDMS | [46] |
ECG | Commercial 3M electrode | Voltage | Chest and wrist | Cardiology, brain activity, muscle movement | PDMS | [47] | ||
ECG | Ag microparticles | Voltage | Chest, arm, scalp | Cardiology | PDMS | [5] | ||
ECG, EMG | Carbon nanofillers | Voltage | Wrist, stomach, ankle | Cardiology, muscle movement | PDMS | [30] | ||
ECG, EEG, EMG | Cr/Au FS | Voltage/frequency | Arm, neck, forehead, chest, leg | Cardiology, brain activity, muscle movement | Modified silicone (Smooth-on)/PVA | [36] | ||
EMG | Au FS | Voltage | Arm, prosthetic | Muscle movement, robotic arm control | Ecoflex (Smooth-on)/PVA | [37] | ||
EEG | Au FS | Voltage | Ear | Brain activity | silicone elastomer/PVA | [48] | ||
ECG | Au/Ti FS | Voltage | Neck, chest | Cardiology | Adhesive PDMS | [49] | ||
ECG, EEG, EMG | Cr/Au FS | Voltage | Back, arm, scalp | Cardiology, brain activity, prosthetic control | Silicone bylayer: Adhesive silicone (RT GEL 4642, Bluestar), Ecoflex (00-30 Smooth-on) | [50] | ||
ECG, EMG | Cr/Au FS with NdFeB | Voltage | Chest, arm, cheek | Cardiology, muscle movement | Adhesive Bluestar Silicones | [51] | ||
ECG, EEG, EMG | PEDOT:PSS | Voltage | Chest, arm, scalp | Cardiology, muscle movement, brain activity | PEDOT:PSS/ waterborne polyurethane (WPU) /D-sorbitol blend | [2] | ||
Thermal sensor | Thermal resistance | Temperature | Cu | Resistance | Arm | Wound healing | Ecoflex | [52] |
Pt | Resistance | Skin | Body temperature | Modified silicone (Smooth-on)/PVA | [36] | |||
Au | Resistance | Arm | Body temperature | Ecoflex, (Smooth-on)/PVA | [37] | |||
Au | Resistance | Skin | Temperature beneath 6 mm of skin surface | Ecoflex | [53] | |||
Ni-NiO-Ni | Resistance | Facial surface | Respiration temperature | PET | [54] | |||
PEDOT:PSS | Resistance | Skin/hand | Body temperature | PDMS | [55] | |||
Thermocouple | Cr/Au FS | Voltage | Wrist | Blood flow | Ecoflex | [56] | ||
Cr/Au FS | Voltage | Cheek | Vascularization, blood flow, stratum corneum thickness, hydration | Ecoflex 00–30 | [57] | |||
Diode thermal sensor | PIN diode sensor | Voltage | Skin, palm | Body temperature | Silicone elastomer/PVA | [4] | ||
Photodetector | Photoelectricity | PPG, SO2 | P3HT: PCBM | Voltage | Fingertip | Cardiology | Parylene | [58,59] |
Mechanical sensor | Piezoresisticity | Blood pulse | PEDOT: PSS | Current | Wrist | Cardiology | PDMS | [60] |
Blood pulse | Graphene oxide | Resistance | Wrist, fingertip, chest | Cardiology, respiration states | PDMS | [61] | ||
Blood pulse, static tremor | Graphene oxide | Current | Wrist, fingertip | Cardiology, Early-stage Parkinson’s disease | Polyurethane sponge | [62] | ||
pulse rate | EGaIn | Voltage | Wrist | Cardiology | PDMS | [63] | ||
Capacitance | Pulse rate, PWV | Mg/Fe | Capacitance | Wrist, carotid artery, skin above femoral artery | Cardiology, arterial stiffness | PHB/PHV | [64] | |
Pulse rate, muscle movement | PEDOT:PSS/ Mxene/P(VDF-TrFE) | Capacitance | Wrist, arm, dermal area of eye and throat | Cardiology, Early-stage Parkinson’s disease | PDMS | [65] | ||
Pulse rate, physiologic pressure | Cu | Capacitance | Wrist, Intracranial (of mice) | Cardiology, intracranial pressure | SBS | [66] | ||
Piezoelectricity | Pulse rate, PWV | P(VDF-TrFE) /PEDOT:PSS | Voltage | Wrist, neck | Cardiology, arterial stiffness | PEN | [67] | |
Pulse rate, PWV | PZT | Current | Wrist, neck, | Cardiology, arterial stiffness | Ecoflex 00-30 | [68] | ||
Skin modulus | PZT | Voltage | pathologies of skin regions | Dermatology | Ecoflex 00-30 | [69] | ||
Pulse rate | PDA/BTO/PCVF | Voltage | Wrist, dermal area of throat | Cardiology | PET | [70] | ||
Ultrasound images | Commercial ultrasound prob | Voltage | Neck, chest | Images of lung, diaphragm, heart, and stomach | Bioadhesive hydrogel elastomer couplant | [32] | ||
Ultrasound images | PZT-5H | Voltage | Chest | Images of heart | SEBS | [71] |
Skin-Contact Strategy | Skin-Contact Method/Material | Electrode Material | Impedance | Treatment | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Van der Waals forces | Hydrogel electrode | Ag/AgCl | 20 kΩ (50 Hz)~75 kΩ (100 Hz) | ECG | [104] |
CNT/PDMS | CNT | ~100 kΩ (100 Hz) | ECG | [105] | |
CNT/PEIE/PDMS | CNT | ~145 kΩ (100 Hz) | ECG | [46] | |
PDMS /in gecko-inspired micropillar structure | Commercial medical 3M electrode | N/A | ECG | [47] | |
Ag particles in PDMS/ in micropillar structure | Ag | 50 kΩ (10 hz) | ECG, EEG, EMG | [5] | |
hybrid nanofiller in PDMS/ in gecko-inspired micropillar structure | 1-D CNT and 2-D graphene nanopower | N/A | ECG | [30] | |
Silicone elastomer/PVA | Cr/Au FS | N/A | ECG, EEG, EMG | [36] | |
Ecoflex (Smooth-on) /PVA | Au FS | N/A | EMG | [37] | |
Silicone elastomer/PVA | Au FS | N/A | EEG | [48] | |
Pressure sensitive adhesive layer | CNT/Adhesive PDMS | Au/Ti/polyimide FS | 241 kΩ (40 Hz) | ECG | [49] |
Silicone adhesive | Cr/Au FS | 30 kΩ (30 Hz) | ECG, EEG, EEG | [50] | |
Adhesive Bluestar Silicones / ferromagnetic dipole | Cr/Au FS | <100 kΩ (10 kHz) | ECG, EEG, EMG | [51] | |
PEDOT:PSS/ waterborne polyurethane (WPU) /D-sorbitol | PEDOT:PSS | 82 at 10 Hz | ECG, EEG, EMG | [2] |
Pressure Sensor Classification | Sensitivity | Response Time | Stretchability | Operating Voltage | Healthcare Monitoring | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Piezoresistivity | () | 0.2 s | 50% | 0.2 v | Wrist blood wave | [60] |
() | 80–120 ms | N/A | N/A | physiological signals, voice, and motion activities | [61] | |
(); ) | 22 ms | 80% | N/A | Early-stage Parkinson’s disease (tremor of 4–6 Hz) | [62] | |
– () | 90 ms | Stretching > 200% strain without failure | 30 mV | Cardiology | [63] | |
Capacitance | (); () | millisecond | Bending radii down to 27 mm, sensitivity remains 80% | N/A | Cardiology, arterial stiffness | [64] |
0.15 s | >40 compression (10,000 cycles) | N/A | Cardiology, early-stage Parkinson’s detection, muscle movement, vocalization waves | [65] | ||
90 ms | N/A | Nearfield electromagnetic coupling | Cardiology, intracranial pressure | [66] | ||
Piezoelectricity | 0.1 s | N/A | 3 V | Cardiology, arterial stiffness | [67] | |
39 ms (static state)/27 ms (excited state) | Bending angle up to 90° | N/A | Cardiology, voice recognition | [70] | ||
0.005 Pa | 0.1 ms | stretching ~30% with effective modulus of ~60 kPa | 1–3 V | Cardiology, arterial stiffness | [68] | |
(30 1800 kPa) | N/A | Stretching 30% (failure) | 2–5 V | Dermatology | [69] |
Substrate Material | Device Thickness | Placement Site (Signal) | Exercise/Motion | Adhesion Length | On-Skin Measurement Duration | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
00-30 Ecoflex | Skin (temperature), forehead (EEG), chest (ECG), leg (EMG) | Walking, skin stretching | N/A | 6 h | [36] | |
Ecoflex 00-30 | N/A | Wrist (blood pulse) | N/A | N/A | 14 s | [68] |
Ecoflex 00-30 | Skin (dermatology) | N/A | N/A | N/A | [69] | |
Ecoflex 00-30/ Bluestar 4642 | 0.9 mm | Arm (EMG), scalp (EEG) | Exercise, sleeping and showering, skin stretching | Consistent over several days | 30 s | [50] |
Ecoflex | Forearm, fingertip (blood flow) | Device compressing | N/A | 30 min | [56] | |
PDMS | 2 mm | Arm (ECG), scalp (EEG) | Swimming | N/A | 70 s | [5] |
PDMS | Arm (ECG) | Wrist curl, squat, writing | N/A | 40 s | [30] | |
PDMS | Wrist (blood pulse) | N/A | N/A | 10 s | [60] | |
PDMS | Wrist (blood pulse), foot (pressure) | Walking, running, jumping | N/A | 30 s | [61] | |
PDMS | N/A | Wrist (blood pulse) | Bike riding | N/A | 1400 s | [63] |
PDMS | Skin (sweat) | Bike riding | N/A | 1–6 h (one-time usage) | [228] | |
Adhesive PDMS | Chest (ECG) | N/A | N/A | 20 s | [49] | |
Adhesive Bluestar Silicones | 2 mm | Chest (ECG), arm (EMG), neck (EEG) | N/A | N/A | 20 s | [51] |
SBS | 0.1 mm | Wrist (blood pulse) | N/A | N/A | 60 s | [66] |
Silicone elastomer | Ear (EEG) | Washing in soap water | 2 weeks | 3.5 min | [48] | |
PHB/PHV | 2.4 mm | Wrist (blood pulse, PWV) | N/A | N/A | 15 s | [64] |
Silicone elastomer/PVA | Palm (temperature) | Device compressing | N/A | 3 h | [4] | |
PVA | Bicep and tricep, lower back (EEG) | Skin stretching | 2 weeks | 30 s | [37] | |
PET | Chest (ECG, temperature) | Running | 30 h | 2000 s | [46] | |
PET | N/A | Skin (sweat) | Bike riding | N/A | 7000 s | [221] |
PEN | Wrist (blood pulse, PWV) | N/A | N/A | 3 s | [67] | |
Parylene | ) | N/A | 5 days | 3 s | [59] | |
Polyurethane sponge | N/A | Wrist (blood pulse), static tremor (Parkinson’s disease diagnosis) | N/A | N/A | 80 s | [62] |
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Mao, P.; Li, H.; Yu, Z. A Review of Skin-Wearable Sensors for Non-Invasive Health Monitoring Applications. Sensors 2023, 23, 3673. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073673
Mao P, Li H, Yu Z. A Review of Skin-Wearable Sensors for Non-Invasive Health Monitoring Applications. Sensors. 2023; 23(7):3673. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073673
Chicago/Turabian StyleMao, Pengsu, Haoran Li, and Zhibin Yu. 2023. "A Review of Skin-Wearable Sensors for Non-Invasive Health Monitoring Applications" Sensors 23, no. 7: 3673. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073673