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Sensors, Volume 11, Issue 3 (March 2011) – 65 articles , Pages 2282-3400

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311 KiB  
Article
A Reliable Energy-Efficient Multi-Level Routing Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks Using Fuzzy Petri Nets
by Zhenhua Yu, Xiao Fu, Yuanli Cai and Mehmet C. Vuran
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3381-3400; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303381 - 22 Mar 2011
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 9213
Abstract
A reliable energy-efficient multi-level routing algorithm in wireless sensor networks is proposed. The proposed algorithm considers the residual energy, number of the neighbors and centrality of each node for cluster formation, which is critical for well-balanced energy dissipation of the network. In the [...] Read more.
A reliable energy-efficient multi-level routing algorithm in wireless sensor networks is proposed. The proposed algorithm considers the residual energy, number of the neighbors and centrality of each node for cluster formation, which is critical for well-balanced energy dissipation of the network. In the algorithm, a knowledge-based inference approach using fuzzy Petri nets is employed to select cluster heads, and then the fuzzy reasoning mechanism is used to compute the degree of reliability in the route sprouting tree from cluster heads to the base station. Finally, the most reliable route among the cluster heads can be constructed. The algorithm not only balances the energy load of each node but also provides global reliability for the whole network. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm effectively prolongs the network lifetime and reduces the energy consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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2188 KiB  
Article
Signal Injection as a Fault Detection Technique
by Jordi Cusidó, Luis Romeral, Juan Antonio Ortega, Antoni Garcia and Jordi Riba
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3356-3380; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303356 - 21 Mar 2011
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9769
Abstract
Double frequency tests are used for evaluating stator windings and analyzing the temperature. Likewise, signal injection on induction machines is used on sensorless motor control fields to find out the rotor position. Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA), which focuses on the spectral analysis [...] Read more.
Double frequency tests are used for evaluating stator windings and analyzing the temperature. Likewise, signal injection on induction machines is used on sensorless motor control fields to find out the rotor position. Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA), which focuses on the spectral analysis of stator current, is the most widely used method for identifying faults in induction motors. Motor faults such as broken rotor bars, bearing damage and eccentricity of the rotor axis can be detected. However, the method presents some problems at low speed and low torque, mainly due to the proximity between the frequencies to be detected and the small amplitude of the resulting harmonics. This paper proposes the injection of an additional voltage into the machine being tested at a frequency different from the fundamental one, and then studying the resulting harmonics around the new frequencies appearing due to the composition between injected and main frequencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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1399 KiB  
Review
Functional Polymers in Protein Detection Platforms: Optical, Electrochemical, Electrical, Mass-Sensitive, and Magnetic Biosensors
by Jong-in Hahm
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3327-3355; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303327 - 21 Mar 2011
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 12374
Abstract
The rapidly growing field of proteomics and related applied sectors in the life sciences demands convenient methodologies for detecting and measuring the levels of specific proteins as well as for screening and analyzing for interacting protein systems. Materials utilized for such protein detection [...] Read more.
The rapidly growing field of proteomics and related applied sectors in the life sciences demands convenient methodologies for detecting and measuring the levels of specific proteins as well as for screening and analyzing for interacting protein systems. Materials utilized for such protein detection and measurement platforms should meet particular specifications which include ease-of-mass manufacture, biological stability, chemical functionality, cost effectiveness, and portability. Polymers can satisfy many of these requirements and are often considered as choice materials in various biological detection platforms. Therefore, tremendous research efforts have been made for developing new polymers both in macroscopic and nanoscopic length scales as well as applying existing polymeric materials for protein measurements. In this review article, both conventional and alternative techniques for protein detection are overviewed while focusing on the use of various polymeric materials in different protein sensing technologies. Among many available detection mechanisms, most common approaches such as optical, electrochemical, electrical, mass-sensitive, and magnetic methods are comprehensively discussed in this article. Desired properties of polymers exploited for each type of protein detection approach are summarized. Current challenges associated with the application of polymeric materials are examined in each protein detection category. Difficulties facing both quantitative and qualitative protein measurements are also identified. The latest efforts on the development and evaluation of nanoscale polymeric systems for improved protein detection are also discussed from the standpoint of quantitative and qualitative measurements. Finally, future research directions towards further advancements in the field are considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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5324 KiB  
Article
Contrast-Independent Biologically Inspired Motion Detection
by Birthe Babies, Jens Peter Lindemann, Martin Egelhaaf and Ralf Möller
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3303-3326; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303303 - 18 Mar 2011
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 9061
Abstract
Optic flow, i.e., retinal image movement resulting from ego-motion, is a crucial source of information used for obstacle avoidance and course control in flying insects. Optic flow analysis may prove promising for mobile robotics although it is currently not among the standard [...] Read more.
Optic flow, i.e., retinal image movement resulting from ego-motion, is a crucial source of information used for obstacle avoidance and course control in flying insects. Optic flow analysis may prove promising for mobile robotics although it is currently not among the standard techniques. Insects have developed a computationally cheap analysis mechanism for image motion. Detailed computational models, the so-called elementary motion detectors (EMDs), describe motion detection in insects. However, the technical application of EMDs is complicated by the strong effect of local pattern contrast on their motion response. Here we present augmented versions of an EMD, the (s)cc-EMDs, which normalise their responses for contrast and thereby reduce the sensitivity to contrast changes. Thus, velocity changes of moving natural images are reflected more reliably in the detector response. The (s)cc-EMDs can easily be implemented in hardware and software and can be a valuable novel visual motion sensor for mobile robots. Full article
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596 KiB  
Article
A Compatible Control Algorithm for Greenhouse Environment Control Based on MOCC Strategy
by Haigen Hu, Lihong Xu, Bingkun Zhu and Ruihua Wei
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3281-3302; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303281 - 18 Mar 2011
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8842
Abstract
Conventional methods used for solving greenhouse environment multi-objective conflict control problems lay excessive emphasis on control performance and have inadequate consideration for both energy consumption and special requirements for plant growth. The resulting solution will cause higher energy cost. However, during the long [...] Read more.
Conventional methods used for solving greenhouse environment multi-objective conflict control problems lay excessive emphasis on control performance and have inadequate consideration for both energy consumption and special requirements for plant growth. The resulting solution will cause higher energy cost. However, during the long period of work and practice, we find that it may be more reasonable to adopt interval or region control objectives instead of point control objectives. In this paper, we propose a modified compatible control algorithm, and employ Multi-Objective Compatible Control (MOCC) strategy and an extant greenhouse model to achieve greenhouse climate control based on feedback control architecture. A series of simulation experiments through various comparative studies are presented to validate the feasibility of the proposed algorithm. The results are encouraging and suggest the energy-saving application to real-world engineering problems in greenhouse production. It may be valuable and helpful to formulate environmental control strategies, and to achieve high control precision and low energy cost for real-world engineering application in greenhouse production. Moreover, the proposed approach has also potential to be useful for other practical control optimization problems with the features like the greenhouse environment control system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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291 KiB  
Article
Optical Sensor for Diverse Organic Vapors at ppm Concentration Ranges
by J. Christopher Thomas, John E. Trend, Neal A. Rakow, Michael S. Wendland, Richard J. Poirier and Dora M. Paolucci
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3267-3280; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303267 - 17 Mar 2011
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 11274
Abstract
A broadly responsive optical organic vapor sensor is described that responds to low concentrations of organic vapors without significant interference from water vapor. Responses to several classes of organic vapors are highlighted, and trends within classes are presented. The relationship between molecular properties [...] Read more.
A broadly responsive optical organic vapor sensor is described that responds to low concentrations of organic vapors without significant interference from water vapor. Responses to several classes of organic vapors are highlighted, and trends within classes are presented. The relationship between molecular properties (vapor pressure, boiling point, polarizability, and refractive index) and sensor response are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Direct and Indirect Sensing of Odor and VOCs and Their Control)
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862 KiB  
Article
Three Realizations and Comparison of Hardware for Piezoresistive Tactile Sensors
by Fernando Vidal-Verdú, Óscar Oballe-Peinado, José A. Sánchez-Durán, Julián Castellanos-Ramos and Rafael Navas-González
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3249-3266; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303249 - 17 Mar 2011
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 10897
Abstract
Tactile sensors are basically arrays of force sensors that are intended to emulate the skin in applications such as assistive robotics. Local electronics are usually implemented to reduce errors and interference caused by long wires. Realizations based on standard microcontrollers, Programmable Systems on [...] Read more.
Tactile sensors are basically arrays of force sensors that are intended to emulate the skin in applications such as assistive robotics. Local electronics are usually implemented to reduce errors and interference caused by long wires. Realizations based on standard microcontrollers, Programmable Systems on Chip (PSoCs) and Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) have been proposed by the authors for the case of piezoresistive tactile sensors. The solution employing FPGAs is especially relevant since their performance is closer to that of Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) than that of the other devices. This paper presents an implementation of such an idea for a specific sensor. For the purpose of comparison, the circuitry based on the other devices is also made for the same sensor. This paper discusses the implementation issues, provides details regarding the design of the hardware based on the three devices and compares them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioinspired Sensor Systems)
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725 KiB  
Article
Gyroscope Pivot Bearing Dimension and Surface Defect Detection
by Wenqian Ge, Huijie Zhao and Xudong Li
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3227-3248; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303227 - 16 Mar 2011
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 8744
Abstract
Because of the perceived lack of systematic analysis in illumination system design processes and a lack of criteria for design methods in vision detection a method for the design of a task-oriented illumination system is proposed. After detecting the micro-defects of a gyroscope [...] Read more.
Because of the perceived lack of systematic analysis in illumination system design processes and a lack of criteria for design methods in vision detection a method for the design of a task-oriented illumination system is proposed. After detecting the micro-defects of a gyroscope pivot bearing with a high curvature glabrous surface and analyzing the characteristics of the surface detection and reflection model, a complex illumination system with coaxial and ring lights is proposed. The illumination system is then optimized based on the analysis of illuminance uniformity of target regions by simulation and grey scale uniformity and articulation that are calculated from grey imagery. Currently, in order to apply the Pulse Coupled Neural Network (PCNN) method, structural parameters must be tested and adjusted repeatedly. Therefore, this paper proposes the use of a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, in which the maximum between cluster variance rules is used as fitness function with a linearily reduced inertia factor. This algorithm is used to adaptively set PCNN connection coefficients and dynamic threshold, which avoids algorithmic precocity and local oscillations. The proposed method is used for pivot bearing defect image processing. The segmentation results of the maximum entropy and minimum error method and the one described in this paper are compared using buffer region matching, and the experimental results show that the method of this paper is effective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10 Years Sensors - A Decade of Publishing)
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449 KiB  
Article
Potentiometric Electronic Tongue to Resolve Mixtures of Sulfide and Perchlorate Anions
by Deivy Wilson, Mohammed N. Abbas, Abdel Latief A. Radwan and Manel del Valle
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3214-3226; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303214 - 16 Mar 2011
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 9139
Abstract
This work describes the use of an array of potentiometric sensors and an artificial neural network response model to determine perchlorate and sulfide ions in polluted waters, by what is known as an electronic tongue. Sensors used have been all-solid-state PVC membrane selective [...] Read more.
This work describes the use of an array of potentiometric sensors and an artificial neural network response model to determine perchlorate and sulfide ions in polluted waters, by what is known as an electronic tongue. Sensors used have been all-solid-state PVC membrane selective electrodes, where their ionophores were different metal-phtalocyanine complexes with specific and anion generic responses. The study case illustrates the potential use of electronic tongues in the quantification of mixtures when interfering effects need to be counterbalanced: relative errors in determination of individual ions can be decreased typically from 25% to less than 5%, if compared to the use of a single proposed ion-selective electrode. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioinspired Sensor Systems)
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1421 KiB  
Article
Adaptive Marginal Median Filter for Colour Images
by Samuel Morillas, Valentín Gregori and Almanzor Sapena
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3205-3213; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303205 - 15 Mar 2011
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9024
Abstract
This paper describes a new filter for impulse noise reduction in colour images which is aimed at improving the noise reduction capability of the classical vector median filter. The filter is inspired by the application of a vector marginal median filtering process over [...] Read more.
This paper describes a new filter for impulse noise reduction in colour images which is aimed at improving the noise reduction capability of the classical vector median filter. The filter is inspired by the application of a vector marginal median filtering process over a selected group of pixels in each filtering window. This selection, which is based on the vector median, along with the application of the marginal median operation constitutes an adaptive process that leads to a more robust filter design. Also, the proposed method is able to process colour images without introducing colour artifacts. Experimental results show that the images filtered with the proposed method contain less noisy pixels than those obtained through the vector median filter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Sensing)
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297 KiB  
Article
Ontological Problem-Solving Framework for Dynamically Configuring Sensor Systems and Algorithms
by Joseph Qualls and David J. Russomanno
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3177-3204; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303177 - 15 Mar 2011
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8190
Abstract
The deployment of ubiquitous sensor systems and algorithms has led to many challenges, such as matching sensor systems to compatible algorithms which are capable of satisfying a task. Compounding the challenges is the lack of the requisite knowledge models needed to discover sensors [...] Read more.
The deployment of ubiquitous sensor systems and algorithms has led to many challenges, such as matching sensor systems to compatible algorithms which are capable of satisfying a task. Compounding the challenges is the lack of the requisite knowledge models needed to discover sensors and algorithms and to subsequently integrate their capabilities to satisfy a specific task. A novel ontological problem-solving framework has been designed to match sensors to compatible algorithms to form synthesized systems, which are capable of satisfying a task and then assigning the synthesized systems to high-level missions. The approach designed for the ontological problem-solving framework has been instantiated in the context of a persistence surveillance prototype environment, which includes profiling sensor systems and algorithms to demonstrate proof-of-concept principles. Even though the problem-solving approach was instantiated with profiling sensor systems and algorithms, the ontological framework may be useful with other heterogeneous sensing-system environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semantic Sensor Network Technologies and Applications)
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985 KiB  
Article
Delaunay Triangulation as a New Coverage Measurement Method in Wireless Sensor Network
by Hassan Chizari, Majid Hosseini, Timothy Poston, Shukor Abd Razak and Abdul Hanan Abdullah
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3163-3176; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303163 - 15 Mar 2011
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 11834
Abstract
Sensing and communication coverage are among the most important trade-offs in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) design. A minimum bound of sensing coverage is vital in scheduling, target tracking and redeployment phases, as well as providing communication coverage. Some methods measure the coverage as [...] Read more.
Sensing and communication coverage are among the most important trade-offs in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) design. A minimum bound of sensing coverage is vital in scheduling, target tracking and redeployment phases, as well as providing communication coverage. Some methods measure the coverage as a percentage value, but detailed information has been missing. Two scenarios with equal coverage percentage may not have the same Quality of Coverage (QoC). In this paper, we propose a new coverage measurement method using Delaunay Triangulation (DT). This can provide the value for all coverage measurement tools. Moreover, it categorizes sensors as ‘fat’, ‘healthy’ or ‘thin’ to show the dense, optimal and scattered areas. It can also yield the largest empty area of sensors in the field. Simulation results show that the proposed DT method can achieve accurate coverage information, and provides many tools to compare QoC between different scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensing Technology for Nondestructive Evaluation)
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445 KiB  
Article
State Derivation of a 12-Axis Gyroscope-Free Inertial Measurement Unit
by Jau-Ching Lu and Pei-Chun Lin
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3145-3162; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303145 - 14 Mar 2011
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8227
Abstract
The derivation of linear acceleration, angular acceleration, and angular velocity states from a 12-axis gyroscope-free inertial measurement unit that utilizes four 3-axis accelerometer measurements at four distinct locations is reported. Particularly, a new algorithm which derives the angular velocity from its quadratic form [...] Read more.
The derivation of linear acceleration, angular acceleration, and angular velocity states from a 12-axis gyroscope-free inertial measurement unit that utilizes four 3-axis accelerometer measurements at four distinct locations is reported. Particularly, a new algorithm which derives the angular velocity from its quadratic form and derivative form based on the context-based interacting multiple model is demonstrated. The performance of the system was evaluated under arbitrary 3-dimensional motion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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604 KiB  
Article
A High Temperature Capacitive Humidity Sensor Based on Mesoporous Silica
by Thorsten Wagner, Sören Krotzky, Alexander Weiß, Tilman Sauerwald, Claus-Dieter Kohl, Jan Roggenbuck and Michael Tiemann
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3135-3144; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303135 - 14 Mar 2011
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 14551
Abstract
Capacitive sensors are the most commonly used devices for the detection of humidity because they are inexpensive and the detection mechanism is very specific for humidity. However, especially for industrial processes, there is a lack of dielectrics that are stable at high temperature [...] Read more.
Capacitive sensors are the most commonly used devices for the detection of humidity because they are inexpensive and the detection mechanism is very specific for humidity. However, especially for industrial processes, there is a lack of dielectrics that are stable at high temperature (>200 °C) and under harsh conditions. We present a capacitive sensor based on mesoporous silica as the dielectric in a simple sensor design based on pressed silica pellets. Investigation of the structural stability of the porous silica under simulated operating conditions as well as the influence of the pellet production will be shown. Impedance measurements demonstrate the utility of the sensor at both low (90 °C) and high (up to 210 °C) operating temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors - 2010)
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1205 KiB  
Article
Simple Random Sampling-Based Probe Station Selection for Fault Detection in Wireless Sensor Networks
by Rimao Huang, Xuesong Qiu and Lanlan Rui
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3117-3134; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303117 - 14 Mar 2011
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7779
Abstract
Fault detection for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has been studied intensively in recent years. Most existing works statically choose the manager nodes as probe stations and probe the network at a fixed frequency. This straightforward solution leads however to several deficiencies. Firstly, by [...] Read more.
Fault detection for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has been studied intensively in recent years. Most existing works statically choose the manager nodes as probe stations and probe the network at a fixed frequency. This straightforward solution leads however to several deficiencies. Firstly, by only assigning the fault detection task to the manager node the whole network is out of balance, and this quickly overloads the already heavily burdened manager node, which in turn ultimately shortens the lifetime of the whole network. Secondly, probing with a fixed frequency often generates too much useless network traffic, which results in a waste of the limited network energy. Thirdly, the traditional algorithm for choosing a probing node is too complicated to be used in energy-critical wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we study the distribution characters of the fault nodes in wireless sensor networks, validate the Pareto principle that a small number of clusters contain most of the faults. We then present a Simple Random Sampling-based algorithm to dynamic choose sensor nodes as probe stations. A dynamic adjusting rule for probing frequency is also proposed to reduce the number of useless probing packets. The simulation experiments demonstrate that the algorithm and adjusting rule we present can effectively prolong the lifetime of a wireless sensor network without decreasing the fault detected rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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3334 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Sensing and Feedback Control for Vibration/Flutter of Rotating Disk by PZT Actuators via Air Coupled Pressure
by Tianhong Yan, Xinsheng Xu, Jianqiang Han, Rongming Lin, Bingfeng Ju and Qing Li
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3094-3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303094 - 10 Mar 2011
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8682
Abstract
In this paper, a feedback control mechanism and its optimization for rotating disk vibration/flutter via changes of air-coupled pressure generated using piezoelectric patch actuators are studied. A thin disk rotates in an enclosure, which is equipped with a feedback control loop consisting of [...] Read more.
In this paper, a feedback control mechanism and its optimization for rotating disk vibration/flutter via changes of air-coupled pressure generated using piezoelectric patch actuators are studied. A thin disk rotates in an enclosure, which is equipped with a feedback control loop consisting of a micro-sensor, a signal processor, a power amplifier, and several piezoelectric (PZT) actuator patches distributed on the cover of the enclosure. The actuator patches are mounted on the inner or the outer surfaces of the enclosure to produce necessary control force required through the airflow around the disk. The control mechanism for rotating disk flutter using enclosure surfaces bonded with sensors and piezoelectric actuators is thoroughly studied through analytical simulations. The sensor output is used to determine the amount of input to the actuator for controlling the response of the disk in a closed loop configuration. The dynamic stability of the disk-enclosure system, together with the feedback control loop, is analyzed as a complex eigenvalue problem, which is solved using Galerkin’s discretization procedure. The results show that the disk flutter can be reduced effectively with proper configurations of the control gain and the phase shift through the actuations of PZT patches. The effectiveness of different feedback control methods in altering system characteristics and system response has been investigated. The control capability, in terms of control gain, phase shift, and especially the physical configuration of actuator patches, are also evaluated by calculating the complex eigenvalues and the maximum displacement produced by the actuators. To achieve a optimal control performance, sizes, positions and shapes of PZT patches used need to be optimized and such optimization has been achieved through numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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909 KiB  
Article
An Efficient Transmission Power Control Scheme for Temperature Variation in Wireless Sensor Networks
by Jungwook Lee and Kwangsue Chung
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3078-3093; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303078 - 10 Mar 2011
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7946
Abstract
Wireless sensor networks collect data from several nodes dispersed at remote sites. Sensor nodes can be installed in harsh environments such as deserts, cities, and indoors, where the link quality changes considerably over time. Particularly, changes in transmission power may be caused by [...] Read more.
Wireless sensor networks collect data from several nodes dispersed at remote sites. Sensor nodes can be installed in harsh environments such as deserts, cities, and indoors, where the link quality changes considerably over time. Particularly, changes in transmission power may be caused by temperature, humidity, and other factors. In order to compensate for link quality changes, existing schemes detect the link quality changes between nodes and control transmission power through a series of feedback processes, but these approaches can cause heavy overhead with the additional control packets needed. In this paper, the change of the link quality according to temperature is examined through empirical experimentation. A new power control scheme combining both temperature-aware link quality compensation and a closed-loop feedback process to adapt to link quality changes is proposed. We prove that the proposed scheme effectively adapts the transmission power to the changing link quality with less control overhead and energy consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semantic Sensor Network Technologies and Applications)
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605 KiB  
Article
Open-Gated pH Sensor Fabricated on an Undoped-AlGaN/GaN HEMT Structure
by Mastura Shafinaz Zainal Abidin, Abdul Manaf Hashim, Maneea Eizadi Sharifabad, Shaharin Fadzli Abd Rahman and Taizoh Sadoh
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3067-3077; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303067 - 9 Mar 2011
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 11247
Abstract
The sensing responses in aqueous solution of an open-gated pH sensor fabricated on an AlGaN/GaN high-electron-mobility-transistor (HEMT) structure are investigated. Under air-exposed ambient conditions, the open-gated undoped AlGaN/GaN HEMT only shows the presence of a linear current region. This seems to show that [...] Read more.
The sensing responses in aqueous solution of an open-gated pH sensor fabricated on an AlGaN/GaN high-electron-mobility-transistor (HEMT) structure are investigated. Under air-exposed ambient conditions, the open-gated undoped AlGaN/GaN HEMT only shows the presence of a linear current region. This seems to show that very low Fermi level pinning by surface states exists in the undoped AlGaN/GaN sample. In aqueous solution, typical current-voltage (I-V) characteristics with reasonably good gate controllability are observed, showing that the potential of the AlGaN surface at the open-gated area is effectively controlled via aqueous solution by the Ag/AgCl gate electrode. The open-gated undoped AlGaN/GaN HEMT structure is capable of distinguishing pH level in aqueous electrolytes and exhibits linear sensitivity, where high sensitivity of 1.9 mA/pH or 3.88 mA/mm/pH at drain-source voltage, VDS = 5 V is obtained. Due to the large leakage current where it increases with the negative gate voltage, Nernstian like sensitivity cannot be determined as commonly reported in the literature. This large leakage current may be caused by the technical factors rather than any characteristics of the devices. Surprisingly, although there are some imperfections in the device preparation and measurement, the fabricated devices work very well in distinguishing the pH levels. Suppression of current leakage by improving the device preparation is likely needed to improve the device performance. The fabricated device is expected to be suitable for pH sensing applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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Article
Adaptive Sampling for Learning Gaussian Processes Using Mobile Sensor Networks
by Yunfei Xu and Jongeun Choi
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3051-3066; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303051 - 9 Mar 2011
Cited by 70 | Viewed by 9744
Abstract
This paper presents a novel class of self-organizing sensing agents that adaptively learn an anisotropic, spatio-temporal Gaussian process using noisy measurements and move in order to improve the quality of the estimated covariance function. This approach is based on a class of anisotropic [...] Read more.
This paper presents a novel class of self-organizing sensing agents that adaptively learn an anisotropic, spatio-temporal Gaussian process using noisy measurements and move in order to improve the quality of the estimated covariance function. This approach is based on a class of anisotropic covariance functions of Gaussian processes introduced to model a broad range of spatio-temporal physical phenomena. The covariance function is assumed to be unknown a priori. Hence, it is estimated by the maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) estimator. The prediction of the field of interest is then obtained based on the MAP estimate of the covariance function. An optimal sampling strategy is proposed to minimize the information-theoretic cost function of the Fisher Information Matrix. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness and the adaptability of the proposed scheme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Sensing)
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1558 KiB  
Article
Analysis of RFI Identification and Mitigation in CAROLS Radiometer Data Using a Hardware Spectrum Analyser
by Pascal Fanise, Mickaël Pardé, Mehrez Zribi, Monique Dechambre and Christophe Caudoux
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3037-3050; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303037 - 7 Mar 2011
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7979
Abstract
A method to identify and mitigate radio frequency interference (RFI) in microwave radiometry based on the use of a spectrum analyzer has been developed. This method has been tested with CAROLS L-band airborne radiometer data that are strongly corrupted by RFI. RFI is [...] Read more.
A method to identify and mitigate radio frequency interference (RFI) in microwave radiometry based on the use of a spectrum analyzer has been developed. This method has been tested with CAROLS L-band airborne radiometer data that are strongly corrupted by RFI. RFI is a major limiting factor in passive microwave remote sensing interpretation. Although the 1.400–1.427 GHz bandwidth is protected, RFI sources close to these frequencies are still capable of corrupting radiometric measurements. In order to reduce the detrimental effects of RFI on brightness temperature measurements, a new spectrum analyzer has been added to the CAROLS radiometer system. A post processing algorithm is proposed, based on selective filters within the useful bandwidth divided into sub-bands. Two discriminant analyses based on the computation of kurtosis and Euclidian distances have been compared evaluated and validated in order to accurately separate the RF interference from natural signals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10 Years Sensors - A Decade of Publishing)
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654 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Physiological Tremor from Accelerometers for Real-Time Applications
by Kalyana C. Veluvolu and Wei Tech Ang
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3020-3036; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303020 - 7 Mar 2011
Cited by 94 | Viewed by 12361
Abstract
Accurate filtering of physiological tremor is extremely important in robotics assisted surgical instruments and procedures. This paper focuses on developing single stage robust algorithms for accurate tremor filtering with accelerometers for real-time applications. Existing methods rely on estimating the tremor under the assumption [...] Read more.
Accurate filtering of physiological tremor is extremely important in robotics assisted surgical instruments and procedures. This paper focuses on developing single stage robust algorithms for accurate tremor filtering with accelerometers for real-time applications. Existing methods rely on estimating the tremor under the assumption that it has a single dominant frequency. Our time-frequency analysis on physiological tremor data revealed that tremor contains multiple dominant frequencies over the entire duration rather than a single dominant frequency. In this paper, the existing methods for tremor filtering are reviewed and two improved algorithms are presented. A comparative study is conducted on all the estimation methods with tremor data from microsurgeons and novice subjects under different conditions. Our results showed that the new improved algorithms performed better than the existing algorithms for tremor estimation. A procedure to separate the intended motion/drift from the tremor component is formulated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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491 KiB  
Communication
Photonic Biosensor Assays to Detect and Distinguish Subspecies of Francisella tularensis
by Kristie L. Cooper, Aloka B. Bandara, Yunmiao Wang, Anbo Wang and Thomas J. Inzana
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 3004-3019; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110303004 - 7 Mar 2011
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 9425
Abstract
The application of photonic biosensor assays to diagnose the category-A select agent Francisella tularensis was investigated. Both interferometric and long period fiber grating sensing structures were successfully demonstrated; both these sensors are capable of detecting the optical changes induced by either immunological [...] Read more.
The application of photonic biosensor assays to diagnose the category-A select agent Francisella tularensis was investigated. Both interferometric and long period fiber grating sensing structures were successfully demonstrated; both these sensors are capable of detecting the optical changes induced by either immunological binding or DNA hybridization. Detection was made possible by the attachment of DNA probes or immunoglobulins (IgG) directly to the fiber surface via layer-by-layer electrostatic self-assembly. An optical fiber biosensor was tested using a standard transmission mode long period fiber grating of length 15 mm and period 260 µm, and coated with the IgG fraction of antiserum to F. tularensis. The IgG was deposited onto the optical fiber surface in a nanostructured film, and the resulting refractive index change was measured using spectroscopic ellipsometry. The presence of F. tularensis was detected from the decrease of peak wavelength caused by binding of specific antigen. Detection and differentiation of F. tularensis subspecies tularensis (type A strain TI0902) and subspecies holarctica (type B strain LVS) was further accomplished using a single-mode multi-cavity fiber Fabry-Perot interferometric sensor. These sensors were prepared by depositing seven polymer bilayers onto the fiber tip followed by attaching one of two DNA probes: (a) a 101-bp probe from the yhhW gene unique to type-A strains, or (b) a 117-bp probe of the lpnA gene, common to both type-A and type-B strains. The yhhW probe was reactive with the type-A, but not the type-B strain. Probe lpnA was reactive with both type-A and type-B strains. Nanogram quantities of the target DNA could be detected, highlighting the sensitivity of this method for DNA detection without the use of PCR. The DNA probe reacted with 100% homologous target DNA, but did not react with sequences containing 2-bp mismatches, indicating the high specificity of the assay. These assays will fill an important void that exists for rapid, culture-free, and field-compatible diagnosis of F. tularensis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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266 KiB  
Article
Gas-to-Particle Conversion in Surface Discharge Nonthermal Plasmas and Its Implications for Atmospheric Chemistry
by Hyun-Ha Kim and Atsushi Ogata
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2992-3003; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302992 - 7 Mar 2011
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8366
Abstract
This paper presents some experimental data on gas-to-particle conversion of benzene using nonthermal plasma (NTP) technology and discusses the possibility of its technical application in atmospheric chemistry. Aerosol measurement using a differential mobility analyzer (DMA) revealed that the parts of benzene molecules were [...] Read more.
This paper presents some experimental data on gas-to-particle conversion of benzene using nonthermal plasma (NTP) technology and discusses the possibility of its technical application in atmospheric chemistry. Aerosol measurement using a differential mobility analyzer (DMA) revealed that the parts of benzene molecules were converted into a nanometer-sized aerosol. Aerosol formation was found to be highly related with the missing part in carbon balance. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that the aerosols formed in synthetic humid air are the collection of nanoparticles. The carbonyl band (C=O) was found to be an important chemical constituent in the aerosol. The potential of the NTP as an accelerated test tool in studying secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation from VOCs will be also addressed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Direct and Indirect Sensing of Odor and VOCs and Their Control)
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615 KiB  
Article
Application of V2O5/WO3/TiO2 for Resistive-Type SO2 Sensors
by Noriya Izu, Gunter Hagen, Daniela Schönauer, Ulla Röder-Roith and Ralf Moos
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2982-2991; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302982 - 7 Mar 2011
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 11042
Abstract
A study on the application of V2O5/WO3/TiO2 (VWT) as the sensitive material for resistive-type SO2 sensor was conducted, based on the fact that VWT is a well-known catalyst material for good selective catalytic nitrogen oxide [...] Read more.
A study on the application of V2O5/WO3/TiO2 (VWT) as the sensitive material for resistive-type SO2 sensor was conducted, based on the fact that VWT is a well-known catalyst material for good selective catalytic nitrogen oxide reduction with a proven excellent durability in exhaust gases. The sensors fabricated in this study are planar ones with interdigitated electrodes of Au or Pt. The vanadium content of the utilized VWT is 1.5 or 3.0 wt%. The resistance of VWT decreases with an increasing SO2 concentration in the range from 20 ppm to 5,000 ppm. The best sensor response to SO2 occurs at 400 °C using Au electrodes. The sensor response value is independent on the amount of added vanadium but dependent on the electrode materials at 400 °C. These results are discussed and a sensing mechanism is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors - 2010)
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629 KiB  
Article
Mapping the Philippines’ Mangrove Forests Using Landsat Imagery
by Jordan B. Long and Chandra Giri
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2972-2981; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302972 - 7 Mar 2011
Cited by 136 | Viewed by 26338
Abstract
Current, accurate, and reliable information on the areal extent and spatial distribution of mangrove forests in the Philippines is limited. Previous estimates of mangrove extent do not illustrate the spatial distribution for the entire country. This study, part of a global assessment of [...] Read more.
Current, accurate, and reliable information on the areal extent and spatial distribution of mangrove forests in the Philippines is limited. Previous estimates of mangrove extent do not illustrate the spatial distribution for the entire country. This study, part of a global assessment of mangrove dynamics, mapped the spatial distribution and areal extent of the Philippines’ mangroves circa 2000. We used publicly available Landsat data acquired primarily from the Global Land Survey to map the total extent and spatial distribution. ISODATA clustering, an unsupervised classification technique, was applied to 61 Landsat images. Statistical analysis indicates the total area of mangrove forest cover was approximately 256,185 hectares circa 2000 with overall classification accuracy of 96.6% and a kappa coefficient of 0.926. These results differ substantially from most recent estimates of mangrove area in the Philippines. The results of this study may assist the decision making processes for rehabilitation and conservation efforts that are currently needed to protect and restore the Philippines’ degraded mangrove forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10 Years Sensors - A Decade of Publishing)
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937 KiB  
Article
Driving down the Detection Limit in Microstructured Fiber‑Based Chemical Dip Sensors
by Erik P. Schartner, Heike Ebendorff-Heidepriem, Stephen C. Warren-Smith, Richard T. White and Tanya M. Monro
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2961-2971; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302961 - 4 Mar 2011
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8555
Abstract
We present improvements to fluorescence sensing in soft-glass microstructured optical fibers that result in significantly improved sensitivity relative to previously published results. Concentrations of CdSe quantum dots down to 10 pM levels have been demonstrated. We show that the primary limitation to the [...] Read more.
We present improvements to fluorescence sensing in soft-glass microstructured optical fibers that result in significantly improved sensitivity relative to previously published results. Concentrations of CdSe quantum dots down to 10 pM levels have been demonstrated. We show that the primary limitation to the sensitivity of these systems is the intrinsic fluorescence of the glass itself. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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250 KiB  
Article
On the Optimal Identification of Tag Sets in Time-Constrained RFID Configurations
by Javier Vales-Alonso, María Victoria Bueno-Delgado, Esteban Egea-López, Juan José Alcaraz and Juan Manuel Pérez-Mañogil
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2946-2960; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302946 - 4 Mar 2011
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 9027
Abstract
In Radio Frequency Identification facilities the identification delay of a set of tags is mainly caused by the random access nature of the reading protocol, yielding a random identification time of the set of tags. In this paper, the cumulative distribution function of [...] Read more.
In Radio Frequency Identification facilities the identification delay of a set of tags is mainly caused by the random access nature of the reading protocol, yielding a random identification time of the set of tags. In this paper, the cumulative distribution function of the identification time is evaluated using a discrete time Markov chain for single-set time-constrained passive RFID systems, namely those ones where a single group of tags is assumed to be in the reading area and only for a bounded time (sojourn time) before leaving. In these scenarios some tags in a set may leave the reader coverage area unidentified. The probability of this event is obtained from the cumulative distribution function of the identification time as a function of the sojourn time. This result provides a suitable criterion to minimize the probability of losing tags. Besides, an identification strategy based on splitting the set of tags in smaller subsets is also considered. Results demonstrate that there are optimal splitting configurations that reduce the overall identification time while keeping the same probability of losing tags. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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618 KiB  
Article
Nanofluidic Refractive-Index Sensors Formed by Nanocavity Resonators in Metals without Plasmons
by Shih-Pin Tsai, Yao-Feng Ma, Ming-Je Sung and Ding-Wei Huang
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2939-2945; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302939 - 4 Mar 2011
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8747
Abstract
Nanocavity resonators in metals acting as nanofluidic refractive-index sensors were analyzed theoretically. With the illumination of transverse electric polarized light, the proposed refractive index sensor structure acts as a pure electromagnetic resonator without the excitation of surface plasmons. The reflected signal from the [...] Read more.
Nanocavity resonators in metals acting as nanofluidic refractive-index sensors were analyzed theoretically. With the illumination of transverse electric polarized light, the proposed refractive index sensor structure acts as a pure electromagnetic resonator without the excitation of surface plasmons. The reflected signal from the nanocavity resonators can be very sensitive to the refractive index of the fluids inside the nanocavities due to the enhancement of the electric field of the resonant mode inside the cavities. Such a sensor configuration can be a useful tool for probing the refractive index change of the fluid inside the nanocavities using the spectral, angular or intensity interrogation schemes. The wavelength sensitivity of 430 nm/RIU, angular sensitivity of 200–1,000 deg/RIU and intensity sensitivity of 25.5 RIU−1 can be achieved in the proposed sensor configuration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Resonant Microsensors)
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276 KiB  
Article
ECS: Efficient Communication Scheduling for Underwater Sensor Networks
by Lu Hong, Feng Hong, Zhongwen Guo and Zhengbao Li
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2920-2938; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302920 - 4 Mar 2011
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8447
Abstract
TDMA protocols have attracted a lot of attention for underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWSNs), because of the unique characteristics of acoustic signal propagation such as great energy consumption in transmission, long propagation delay and long communication range. Previous TDMA protocols all allocated transmission [...] Read more.
TDMA protocols have attracted a lot of attention for underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWSNs), because of the unique characteristics of acoustic signal propagation such as great energy consumption in transmission, long propagation delay and long communication range. Previous TDMA protocols all allocated transmission time to nodes based on discrete time slots. This paper proposes an efficient continuous time scheduling TDMA protocol (ECS) for UWSNs, including the continuous time based and sender oriented conflict analysis model, the transmission moment allocation algorithm and the distributed topology maintenance algorithm. Simulation results confirm that ECS improves network throughput by 20% on average, compared to existing MAC protocols. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Sensing)
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319 KiB  
Article
An Emergency-Adaptive Routing Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks for Building Fire Hazard Monitoring
by Yuanyuan Zeng, Cormac J. Sreenan, Lanny Sitanayah, Naixue Xiong, Jong Hyuk Park and Guilin Zheng
Sensors 2011, 11(3), 2899-2919; https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302899 - 4 Mar 2011
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 11750
Abstract
Fire hazard monitoring and evacuation for building environments is a novel application area for the deployment of wireless sensor networks. In this context, adaptive routing is essential in order to ensure safe and timely data delivery in building evacuation and fire fighting resource [...] Read more.
Fire hazard monitoring and evacuation for building environments is a novel application area for the deployment of wireless sensor networks. In this context, adaptive routing is essential in order to ensure safe and timely data delivery in building evacuation and fire fighting resource applications. Existing routing mechanisms for wireless sensor networks are not well suited for building fires, especially as they do not consider critical and dynamic network scenarios. In this paper, an emergency-adaptive, real-time and robust routing protocol is presented for emergency situations such as building fire hazard applications. The protocol adapts to handle dynamic emergency scenarios and works well with the routing hole problem. Theoretical analysis and simulation results indicate that our protocol provides a real-time routing mechanism that is well suited for dynamic emergency scenarios in building fires when compared with other related work. Full article
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