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Volume 30
Issue 23
10.3390/molecules30234585
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Aging Stability and Radical Activity of Plasma-Activated Water Treated in Liquid- and Gas-Phase Reactors

by
Ivan Karlo Cingesar
1,
Višnja Stulić
1,
Franka Markić
2,
Senada Muratović
2,
Mia Kurek
1,
Zoran Herceg
1,
Nadica Maltar-Strmečki
2 and
Tomislava Vukušić Pavičić
1,*
1
Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
2
Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2025, 30(23), 4585; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234585 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 17 October 2025 / Revised: 19 November 2025 / Accepted: 24 November 2025 / Published: 28 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Food Chemistry)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Plasma-activated water (PAW) is a liquid enriched with reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), which impart antimicrobial and bioactive properties. In this study, PAW generated in liquid or gas phase under nitrogen or oxygen atmospheres was characterized in terms of pH, electrical conductivity, oxidation-reduction potential, surface tension, and concentrations of H2O2 and NO2−. Hydroxyl radical (•OH) formation was confirmed using DIPPMPO as a spin-trapping probe, while antioxidant activity was determined directly in treated water for the first time. The stability of reactive species was assessed over three months at room temperature, 4 °C, and −18 °C. Results indicate that plasma effects on physicochemical parameters depend strongly on the process gas. From a long-term storage perspective, samples maintained at 4 °C stabilized at higher H2O2 and NO2− concentrations. Antioxidant activity persisted for up to 60 days, though at low levels. EPR analysis revealed that hydroxyl radical concentration increased slightly during storage, with 60-day samples showing higher signal intensities compared to fresh PAW. Overall, the findings provide new insights into PAW composition, radical dynamics, and stability, highlighting the influence of gas atmosphere and storage conditions on its properties and supporting its potential for applications in the food, agriculture, and biomedical sectors.
Keywords: plasma activated water; reactive species; storage; EPR plasma activated water; reactive species; storage; EPR

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MDPI and ACS Style

Cingesar, I.K.; Stulić, V.; Markić, F.; Muratović, S.; Kurek, M.; Herceg, Z.; Maltar-Strmečki, N.; Vukušić Pavičić, T. Aging Stability and Radical Activity of Plasma-Activated Water Treated in Liquid- and Gas-Phase Reactors. Molecules 2025, 30, 4585. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234585

AMA Style

Cingesar IK, Stulić V, Markić F, Muratović S, Kurek M, Herceg Z, Maltar-Strmečki N, Vukušić Pavičić T. Aging Stability and Radical Activity of Plasma-Activated Water Treated in Liquid- and Gas-Phase Reactors. Molecules. 2025; 30(23):4585. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234585

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cingesar, Ivan Karlo, Višnja Stulić, Franka Markić, Senada Muratović, Mia Kurek, Zoran Herceg, Nadica Maltar-Strmečki, and Tomislava Vukušić Pavičić. 2025. "Aging Stability and Radical Activity of Plasma-Activated Water Treated in Liquid- and Gas-Phase Reactors" Molecules 30, no. 23: 4585. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234585

APA Style

Cingesar, I. K., Stulić, V., Markić, F., Muratović, S., Kurek, M., Herceg, Z., Maltar-Strmečki, N., & Vukušić Pavičić, T. (2025). Aging Stability and Radical Activity of Plasma-Activated Water Treated in Liquid- and Gas-Phase Reactors. Molecules, 30(23), 4585. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234585

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