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Neuroprotective Strategies 2014

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2014) | Viewed by 446375

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We started the “Neuroprotective Strategies“ special issue jointly with Molecules first in 2009. It was a great success; a large number of reviews and original research articles were published in the inaugural volumes. Since then, the International Journal of Molecular Sciences has successfully continued this special issue covering neuroprotection broadly including, but not limited to, preclinical/basic science assessments of various animal models relevant to diseases and agents with potential or perceived translation values. Due to the lack of successful clinical realizations of otherwise attractive preclinical data, we open up “Neuroprotective Strategies 2013” to thought-provoking Comments, Opinions and Perspectives, in addition to our traditional Reviews and Research Articles. We especially encourage submissions that address critical issues having prevented successful translations of promising laboratory data, such as limitations of in vitro studies and preclinical animal models to mirror multiple pathologies underlying human neurodegenerative diseases, lack of drug-likeness of experimental agents, the need to consider absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, toxicology (ADMET) and pharmacokinetics even in the early stage of drug discovery, as well as obstacles of drug delivery to the CNS. Critical reviews on relevant patent literature are also welcome. I give thanks for past contributions and look forward to your submissions on the promising and challenging aspects of the field.

Dr. Katalin Prokai-Tatrai
Guest Editor

Submission

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. Papers will be published continuously (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are refereed through a peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed Open Access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF.

Keywords

  • age-related neurodegeneration
  • blood-brain barrier;
  • CNS injury;
  • cognition and dementia;
  • drug delivery and drug-likeness;
  • inflammation;
  • in silico drug design and disease models;
  • ischemia and reperfusion;
  • oxidative stress;
  • peripheral nervous system;
  • stem cell;
  • structure-activity relationship;
  • translational medicine

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Published Papers (53 papers)

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6385 KiB  
Article
Motor, Visual and Emotional Deficits in Mice after Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Are Alleviated by the Novel CB2 Inverse Agonist SMM-189
by Anton Reiner, Scott A. Heldt, Chaela S. Presley, Natalie H. Guley, Andrea J. Elberger, Yunping Deng, Lauren D'Surney, Joshua T. Rogers, Jessica Ferrell, Wei Bu, Nobel Del Mar, Marcia G. Honig, Steven N. Gurley and Bob M. Moore II
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(1), 758-787; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16010758 - 31 Dec 2014
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 10209
Abstract
We have developed a focal blast model of closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) in mice. As true for individuals that have experienced mild TBI, mice subjected to 50–60 psi blast show motor, visual and emotional deficits, diffuse axonal injury and microglial activation, [...] Read more.
We have developed a focal blast model of closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) in mice. As true for individuals that have experienced mild TBI, mice subjected to 50–60 psi blast show motor, visual and emotional deficits, diffuse axonal injury and microglial activation, but no overt neuron loss. Because microglial activation can worsen brain damage after a concussive event and because microglia can be modulated by their cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2), we evaluated the effectiveness of the novel CB2 receptor inverse agonist SMM-189 in altering microglial activation and mitigating deficits after mild TBI. In vitro analysis indicated that SMM-189 converted human microglia from the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype to the pro-healing M2 phenotype. Studies in mice showed that daily administration of SMM-189 for two weeks beginning shortly after blast greatly reduced the motor, visual, and emotional deficits otherwise evident after 50–60 psi blasts, and prevented brain injury that may contribute to these deficits. Our results suggest that treatment with the CB2 inverse agonist SMM-189 after a mild TBI event can reduce its adverse consequences by beneficially modulating microglial activation. These findings recommend further evaluation of CB2 inverse agonists as a novel therapeutic approach for treating mild TBI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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4155 KiB  
Article
Effects of Different Sera Conditions on Olfactory Ensheathing Cells in Vitro
by Meng Lu, Jun Dong, Teng Lu, Hongjun Lv, Pinglin Yang, Zhijian Cheng, Jin Li, Baobao Liang, Junkui Xu, Haopeng Li and Xijing He
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(1), 420-438; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16010420 - 26 Dec 2014
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5827
Abstract
Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OEC) is a promising therapy in spinal cord injury (SCI) treatment. However, the therapeutic efficacy of this method is unstable due to unknown reasons. Considering the alterations in the culture environment that occur during OEC preparation for transplantation, [...] Read more.
Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OEC) is a promising therapy in spinal cord injury (SCI) treatment. However, the therapeutic efficacy of this method is unstable due to unknown reasons. Considering the alterations in the culture environment that occur during OEC preparation for transplantation, we hypothesize that these changes may cause variations in the curative effects of this method. In this study, we compared OEC cultured in medium containing different types and concentrations of serum. After purification and passage, the OEC were cultured for 7 days in different media containing 5%, 10%, 15% or 20% fetal bovine serum (FBS) or rat serum (RS), or the cells were cultured in FBS-containing medium first, followed by medium containing RS. In another group, the OEC were first cultured in 10% FBS for 3 days and then cultured with rat spinal cord explants with 10% RS for another 4 days. An MTT assay and P75 neurotrophin receptor immunofluorescence staining were used to examine cell viability and OEC numbers, respectively. The concentration of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), which is secreted by OEC into the culture supernatant, was detected using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RT-PCR was applied to investigate the NT-3 gene expression in OEC according to different groups. Compared with FBS, RS reduced OEC proliferation in relation to OEC counts (χ2 = 166.279, df = 1, p < 0.01), the optical density (OD) value in the MTT assay (χ2 = 34.730, df = 1, p < 0.01), and NT-3 concentration in the supernatant (χ2 = 242.997, df = 1, p < 0.01). OEC cultured with spinal cord explants secreted less NT-3 than OEC cultured alone (F = 9.611, df = 5.139, p < 0.01). Meanwhile, the order of application of different sera was not influential. There was statistically significant difference in NT-3 gene expression among different groups when the serum concentration was 15% (χ2 = 64.347, df = 1, p < 0.01). In conclusion, different serum conditions may be responsible for the variations in OEC proliferation and function. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
TGF-β1 Protection against Aβ1–42-Induced Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration in Rats
by Wei-Xing Shen, Jia-Hui Chen, Jian-Hua Lu, Yu-Ping Peng and Yi-Hua Qiu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(12), 22092-22108; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151222092 - 01 Dec 2014
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6723
Abstract
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, a cytokine that can be expressed in the brain, is a key regulator of the brain’s responses to injury and inflammation. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common neurodegenerative disorder, involves inflammatory processes in the brain in addition to the [...] Read more.
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, a cytokine that can be expressed in the brain, is a key regulator of the brain’s responses to injury and inflammation. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common neurodegenerative disorder, involves inflammatory processes in the brain in addition to the hallmarks, amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Recently, we have shown that T-helper (Th) 17 cells, a subpopulation of CD4+ T-cells with high proinflammation, also participate in the brain inflammatory process of AD. However, it is poorly known whether TGF-β1 ameliorates the lymphocyte-mediated neuroinflammation and, thereby, alleviates neurodegeneration in AD. Herein, we administered TGF-β1 via the intracerebroventricle (ICV) in AD model rats, by Aβ1–42 injection in both sides of the hippocampus, to show the neuroprotection of TGF-β1. The TGF-β1 administration after the Aβ1–42 injection ameliorated cognitive deficit and neuronal loss and apoptosis, reduced amyloid precursor protein (APP) expression, elevated protein phosphatase (PP)2A expression, attenuated glial activation and alleviated the imbalance of the pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory responses of T-lymphocytes, compared to the Aβ1–42 injection alone. These findings demonstrate that TGF-β1 provides protection against AD neurodegeneration and suggest that the TGF-β1 neuroprotection is implemented by the alleviation of glial and T-cell-mediated neuroinflammation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Sterols from Mytilidae Show Anti-Aging and Neuroprotective Effects via Anti-Oxidative Activity
by Yujuan Sun, Yanfei Lin, Xueli Cao, Lan Xiang and Jianhua Qi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(12), 21660-21673; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151221660 - 25 Nov 2014
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6472
Abstract
For screening anti-aging samples from marine natural products, K6001 yeast strain was employed as a bioassay system. The active mussel extract was separated to give an active sterol fraction (SF). SF was further purified, and four sterol compounds were obtained. Their structures were [...] Read more.
For screening anti-aging samples from marine natural products, K6001 yeast strain was employed as a bioassay system. The active mussel extract was separated to give an active sterol fraction (SF). SF was further purified, and four sterol compounds were obtained. Their structures were determined to be cholesterol (CHOL), brassicasterol, crinosterol, and 24-methylenecholesterol. All compounds showed similar anti-aging activity. To understand the action mechanism involved, anti-oxidative experiments, reactive oxygen species (ROS) assays, and malondialdehyde (MDA) tests were performed on the most abundant compound, CHOL. Results indicated that treatment with CHOL increases the survival rate of yeast under oxidative stress and decreases ROS and MDA levels. In addition, mutations of uth1, skn7, sod1, and sod2, which feature a K6001 background, were employed and the lifespans of the mutations were not affected by CHOL. These results demonstrate that CHOL exerts anti-aging effects via anti-oxidative stress. Based on the connection between neuroprotection and anti-aging, neuroprotective experiments were performed in PC12 cells. Paraquat was used to induce oxidative stress and the results showed that the CHOL and SF protect the PC12 cells from the injury induced by paraquat. In addition, these substance exhibited nerve growth factor (NGF) mimic activities again confirmed their neuroprotective function. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Dexamethasone Improves Heat Stroke-Induced Multiorgan Dysfunction and Damage in Rats
by Chia-Chyuan Liu, Mei-Fen Shih, Yi-Szu Wen, Ying-Hsiu Lai and Tsai-Hsiu Yang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(11), 21299-21313; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151121299 - 18 Nov 2014
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6225
Abstract
Dexamethasone (DXM) is known as an immunosuppressive drug used for inflammation control. In the present study, we attempted to examine whether DXM administration could attenuate the hypercoagulable state and the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, improve arterial hypotension, cerebral ischemia and damage, and vital [...] Read more.
Dexamethasone (DXM) is known as an immunosuppressive drug used for inflammation control. In the present study, we attempted to examine whether DXM administration could attenuate the hypercoagulable state and the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, improve arterial hypotension, cerebral ischemia and damage, and vital organ failure in a rat model of heat stroke. The results indicated that all the rats suffering from heat stroke showed high serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), accompanied with increased prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time and D-D dimer, and decreased protein C. During the induction period of heat stroke, plasma levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), were consistently increased. High striatal levels of glycerol, glutamate, and lactate/pyruvate were simultaneously detected. On the contrary, the mean arterial pressure, plasma levels of interleukin-10 (IL-10), and local cerebral blood flow at the striatum were all decreased. Importantly, intravenous administration of DXM substantially ameliorated the circulatory dysfunction, systematic inflammation, hypercoagulable state, cerebral ischemia and damage during the induction period of heat stroke. These findings demonstrated that DXM may be an alternative therapy that can ameliorate heat stroke victims by attenuating activated coagulation, systemic inflammation, and vital organ ischemia/injury during heat stroke. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Chrysin Protects against Focal Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Mice through Attenuation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation
by Yang Yao, Li Chen, Jinting Xiao, Chunyang Wang, Wei Jiang, Rongxin Zhang and Junwei Hao
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(11), 20913-20926; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151120913 - 13 Nov 2014
Cited by 112 | Viewed by 8888
Abstract
Inflammation and oxidative stress play an important part in the pathogenesis of focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, resulting in neuronal death. The signaling pathways involved and the underlying mechanisms of these events are not fully understood. Chrysin, which is a naturally occurring flavonoid, [...] Read more.
Inflammation and oxidative stress play an important part in the pathogenesis of focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, resulting in neuronal death. The signaling pathways involved and the underlying mechanisms of these events are not fully understood. Chrysin, which is a naturally occurring flavonoid, exhibits various biological activities. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective properties of chrysin in a mouse model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). To this end, male C57/BL6 mice were pretreated with chrysin once a day for seven days and were then subjected to 1 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion followed by reperfusion for 24 h. Our data show that chrysin successfully decreased neurological deficit scores and infarct volumes, compared with the vehicle group. The increases in glial cell numbers and proinflammatory cytokine secretion usually caused by ischemia/reperfusion were significantly ameliorated by chrysin pretreatment. Moreover, chrysin also inhibited the MCAO-induced up-regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), compared with the vehicle. These results suggest that chrysin could be a potential prophylactic agent for cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury mediated by its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
The Effects of NAD+ on Apoptotic Neuronal Death and Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Function after Glutamate Excitotoxicity
by Xiaowan Wang, Hailong Li and Shinghua Ding
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(11), 20449-20468; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151120449 - 07 Nov 2014
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8422
Abstract
NAD+ is an essential co-enzyme for cellular energy metabolism and is also involved as a substrate for many cellular enzymatic reactions. It has been shown that NAD+ has a beneficial effect on neuronal survival and brain injury in in vitro and [...] Read more.
NAD+ is an essential co-enzyme for cellular energy metabolism and is also involved as a substrate for many cellular enzymatic reactions. It has been shown that NAD+ has a beneficial effect on neuronal survival and brain injury in in vitro and in vivo ischemic models. However, the effect of NAD+ on mitochondrial biogenesis and function in ischemia has not been well investigated. In the present study, we used an in vitro glutamate excitotoxicity model of primary cultured cortical neurons to study the effect of NAD+ on apoptotic neuronal death and mitochondrial biogenesis and function. Our results show that supplementation of NAD+ could effectively reduce apoptotic neuronal death, and apoptotic inducing factor translocation after neurons were challenged with excitotoxic glutamate stimulation. Using different approaches including confocal imaging, mitochondrial DNA measurement and Western blot analysis of PGC-1 and NRF-1, we also found that NAD+ could significantly attenuate glutamate-induced mitochondrial fragmentation and the impairment of mitochondrial biogenesis. Furthermore, NAD+ treatment effectively inhibited mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization and NADH redistribution after excitotoxic glutamate stimulation. Taken together, our results demonstrated that NAD+ is capable of inhibiting apoptotic neuronal death after glutamate excitotoxicity via preserving mitochondrial biogenesis and integrity. Our findings provide insights into potential neuroprotective strategies in ischemic stroke. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Long-Term Spinal Ventral Root Reimplantation, but not Bone Marrow Mononuclear Cell Treatment, Positively Influences Ultrastructural Synapse Recovery and Motor Axonal Regrowth
by Roberta Barbizan, Mateus V. Castro, Rui Seabra Ferreira, Jr., Benedito Barraviera and Alexandre L. R. Oliveira
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(11), 19535-19551; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151119535 - 28 Oct 2014
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6178
Abstract
We recently proposed a new surgical approach to treat ventral root avulsion, resulting in motoneuron protection. The present work combined such a surgical approach with bone marrow mononuclear cells (MC) therapy. Therefore, MC were added to the site of reimplantation. Female Lewis rats [...] Read more.
We recently proposed a new surgical approach to treat ventral root avulsion, resulting in motoneuron protection. The present work combined such a surgical approach with bone marrow mononuclear cells (MC) therapy. Therefore, MC were added to the site of reimplantation. Female Lewis rats (seven weeks old) were subjected to unilateral ventral root avulsion (VRA) at L4, L5 and L6 levels and divided into the following groups (n = 5 for each group): Avulsion, sealant reimplanted roots and sealant reimplanted roots plus MC. After four weeks and 12 weeks post-surgery, the lumbar intumescences were processed by transmission electron microscopy, to analyze synaptic inputs to the repaired α motoneurons. Also, the ipsi and contralateral sciatic nerves were processed for axon counting and morphometry. The ultrastructural results indicated a significant preservation of inhibitory pre-synaptic boutons in the groups repaired with sealant alone and associated with MC therapy. Moreover, the average number of axons was higher in treated groups when compared to avulsion only. Complementary to the fiber counting, the morphometric analysis of axonal diameter and “g” ratio demonstrated that root reimplantation improved the motor component recovery. In conclusion, the data herein demonstrate that root reimplantation at the lesion site may be considered a therapeutic approach, following proximal lesions in the interface of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), and that MC therapy does not further improve the regenerative recovery, up to 12 weeks post lesion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
EAAC1 Gene Deletion Increases Neuronal Death and Blood Brain Barrier Disruption after Transient Cerebral Ischemia in Female Mice
by Bo Young Choi, Jin Hee Kim, Hyun Jung Kim, Bo Eun Lee, In Yeol Kim, Min Sohn and Sang Won Suh
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(11), 19444-19457; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151119444 - 27 Oct 2014
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5903
Abstract
EAAC1 is important in modulating brain ischemic tolerance. Mice lacking EAAC1 exhibit increased susceptibility to neuronal oxidative stress in mice after transient cerebral ischemia. EAAC1 was first described as a glutamate transporter but later recognized to also function as a cysteine transporter in [...] Read more.
EAAC1 is important in modulating brain ischemic tolerance. Mice lacking EAAC1 exhibit increased susceptibility to neuronal oxidative stress in mice after transient cerebral ischemia. EAAC1 was first described as a glutamate transporter but later recognized to also function as a cysteine transporter in neurons. EAAC1-mediated transport of cysteine into neurons contributes to neuronal antioxidant function by providing cysteine substrates for glutathione synthesis. Here we evaluated the effects of EAAC1 gene deletion on hippocampal blood vessel disorganization after transient cerebral ischemia. EAAC1−/− female mice subjected to transient cerebral ischemia by common carotid artery occlusion for 30 min exhibited twice as much hippocampal neuronal death compared to wild-type female mice as well as increased reduction of neuronal glutathione, blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption and vessel disorganization. Pre-treatment of N-acetyl cysteine, a membrane-permeant cysteine prodrug, increased basal glutathione levels in the EAAC1−/− female mice and reduced ischemic neuronal death, BBB disruption and vessel disorganization. These findings suggest that cysteine uptake by EAAC1 is important for neuronal antioxidant function under ischemic conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Neuroprotective Role of Liver Growth Factor “LGF” in an Experimental Model of Cerebellar Ataxia
by Lucía Calatrava-Ferreras, Rafael Gonzalo-Gobernado, Diana Reimers, Antonio S. Herranz, Adriano Jiménez-Escrig, Juan José Díaz-Gil, María José Casarejos, María Teresa Montero-Vega and Eulalia Bazán
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(10), 19056-19073; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151019056 - 21 Oct 2014
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6277
Abstract
Cerebellar ataxias (CA) comprise a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by a lack of motor coordination. They are caused by disturbances in the cerebellum and its associated circuitries, so the major therapeutic goal is to correct cerebellar dysfunction. Neurotrophic factors enhance the [...] Read more.
Cerebellar ataxias (CA) comprise a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by a lack of motor coordination. They are caused by disturbances in the cerebellum and its associated circuitries, so the major therapeutic goal is to correct cerebellar dysfunction. Neurotrophic factors enhance the survival and differentiation of selected types of neurons. Liver growth factor (LGF) is a hepatic mitogen that shows biological activity in neuroregenerative therapies. We investigate the potential therapeutic activity of LGF in the 3-acetylpiridine (3-AP) rat model of CA. This model of CA consists in the lesion of the inferior olive-induced by 3-AP (40 mg/kg). Ataxic rats were treated with 5 µg/rat LGF or vehicle during 3 weeks, analyzing: (a) motor coordination by using the rota-rod test; and (b) the immunohistochemical and biochemical evolution of several parameters related with the olivo-cerebellar function. Motor coordination improved in 3-AP-lesioned rats that received LGF treatment. LGF up-regulated NeuN and Bcl-2 protein levels in the brainstem, and increased calbindin expression and the number of neurons receiving calbindin-positive projections in the cerebellum. LGF also reduced extracellular glutamate and GABA concentrations and microglia activation in the cerebellum. In view of these results, we propose LGF as a potential therapeutic agent in cerebellar ataxias. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Investigation of the Neuroprotective Impact of Nimodipine on Neuro2a Cells by Means of a Surgery-Like Stress Model
by Eva Herzfeld, Christian Strauss, Sebastian Simmermacher, Kaya Bork, Rüdiger Horstkorte, Faramarz Dehghani and Christian Scheller
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(10), 18453-18465; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151018453 - 14 Oct 2014
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6342
Abstract
Nimodipine is well characterized for the management of SAH (subarachnoid hemorrhage) and has been shown to promote a better outcome and less DIND (delayed ischemic neurological deficits). In rat experiments, enhanced axonal sprouting and higher survival of motoneurons was demonstrated after cutting or [...] Read more.
Nimodipine is well characterized for the management of SAH (subarachnoid hemorrhage) and has been shown to promote a better outcome and less DIND (delayed ischemic neurological deficits). In rat experiments, enhanced axonal sprouting and higher survival of motoneurons was demonstrated after cutting or crushing the facial nerve by nimodipine. These results were confirmed in clinical trials following vestibular Schwannoma surgery. The mechanism of the protective competence of nimodipine is unknown. Therefore, in this study, we established an in vitro model to examine the survival of Neuro2a cells after different stress stimuli occurring during surgery with or without nimodipine. Nimodipine significantly decreased ethanol-induced cell death of cells up to approximately 9% in all tested concentrations. Heat-induced cell death was diminished by approximately 2.5% by nimodipine. Cell death induced by mechanical treatment was reduced up to 15% by nimodipine. Our findings indicate that nimodipine rescues Neuro2a cells faintly, but significantly, from ethanol-, heat- and mechanically-induced cell death to different extents in a dosage-dependent manner. This model seems suitable for further investigation of the molecular mechanisms involved in the neuroprotective signal pathways influenced by nimodipine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Sildenafil Attenuates Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Pelvic Ganglia Neurons after Bilateral Cavernosal Nerve Damage
by Leah A. Garcia, Su M. Hlaing, Richard A. Gutierrez, Maria D. Sanchez, Istvan Kovanecz, Jorge N. Artaza and Monica G. Ferrini
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(10), 17204-17220; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151017204 - 26 Sep 2014
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7229
Abstract
Erectile dysfunction is a common complication for patients undergoing surgeries for prostate, bladder, and colorectal cancers, due to damage of the nerves associated with the major pelvic ganglia (MPG). Functional re-innervation of target organs depends on the capacity of the neurons to survive [...] Read more.
Erectile dysfunction is a common complication for patients undergoing surgeries for prostate, bladder, and colorectal cancers, due to damage of the nerves associated with the major pelvic ganglia (MPG). Functional re-innervation of target organs depends on the capacity of the neurons to survive and switch towards a regenerative phenotype. PDE5 inhibitors (PDE5i) have been successfully used in promoting the recovery of erectile function after cavernosal nerve damage (BCNR) by up-regulating the expression of neurotrophic factors in MPG. However, little is known about the effects of PDE5i on markers of neuronal damage and oxidative stress after BCNR. This study aimed to investigate the changes in gene and protein expression profiles of inflammatory, anti-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress related-pathways in MPG neurons after BCNR and subsequent treatment with sildenafil. Our results showed that BCNR in Fisher-344 rats promoted up-regulation of cytokines (interleukin- 1 (IL-1) β, IL-6, IL-10, transforming growth factor β 1 (TGFβ1), and oxidative stress factors (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, Myeloperoxidase (MPO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), TNF receptor superfamily member 5 (CD40) that were normalized by sildenafil treatment given in the drinking water. In summary, PDE5i can attenuate the production of damaging factors and can up-regulate the expression of beneficial factors in the MPG that may ameliorate neuropathic pain, promote neuroprotection, and favor nerve regeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
p62/Sequestosome 1 Regulates Aggresome Formation of Pathogenic Ataxin-3 with Expanded Polyglutamine
by Liang Zhou, Hongfeng Wang, Dong Chen, Feng Gao, Zheng Ying and Guanghui Wang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(9), 14997-15010; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150914997 - 25 Aug 2014
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8341
Abstract
The cellular protein quality control system in association with aggresome formation contributes to protecting cells against aggregation-prone protein-induced toxicity. p62/Sequestosome 1 (p62) is a multifunctional protein which plays an important role in protein degradation and aggregation. Although poly-ubiquitination is usually required for p62-mediated [...] Read more.
The cellular protein quality control system in association with aggresome formation contributes to protecting cells against aggregation-prone protein-induced toxicity. p62/Sequestosome 1 (p62) is a multifunctional protein which plays an important role in protein degradation and aggregation. Although poly-ubiquitination is usually required for p62-mediated protein degradation and aggresome formation, several p62 substrates are processed to form aggregate in an ubiquitination-independent manner. In this study we demonstrate that p62 directly interacts with pathogenic Machado Joseph Disease (MJD)-associated protein ataxin-3 with polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion. Moreover, p62 could regulate the aggresome formation of pathogenic ataxin-3 and protect cells against pathogenic ataxin-3-induced cell death. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Water-Soluble Coenzyme Q10 Inhibits Nuclear Translocation of Apoptosis Inducing Factor and Cell Death Caused by Mitochondrial Complex I Inhibition
by Haining Li, Guisheng Chen, Wanrui Ma and Ping-An Andy Li
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(8), 13388-13400; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150813388 - 31 Jul 2014
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7963
Abstract
The objectives of the study were to explore the mechanism of rotenone-induced cell damage and to examine the protective effects of water-soluble Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) on the toxic effects of rotenone. Murine hippocampal HT22 cells were cultured with mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone. [...] Read more.
The objectives of the study were to explore the mechanism of rotenone-induced cell damage and to examine the protective effects of water-soluble Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) on the toxic effects of rotenone. Murine hippocampal HT22 cells were cultured with mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone. Water-soluble CoQ10 was added to the culture media 3 h prior to the rotenone incubation. Cell viability was determined by alamar blue, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by dihydroethidine (DHE) and mitochondrial membrane potential by tetramethyl rhodamine methyl ester (TMRM). Cytochrome c, caspase-9 and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) were measured using Western blotting after 24 h rotenone incubation. Rotenone caused more than 50% of cell death, increased ROS production, AIF nuclear translocation and reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential, but failed to cause mitochondrial cytochrome c release and caspase-9 activation. Pretreatment with water-soluble CoQ10 enhanced cell viability, decreased ROS production, maintained mitochondrial membrane potential and prevented AIF nuclear translocation. The results suggest that rotenone activates a mitochondria-initiated, caspase-independent cell death pathway. Water-soluble CoQ10 reduces ROS accumulation, prevents the fall of mitochondrial membrane potential, and inhibits AIF translocation and subsequent cell death. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Physical Exercise Promotes Recovery of Neurological Function after Ischemic Stroke in Rats
by Hai-Qing Zheng, Li-Ying Zhang, Jing Luo, Li-Li Li, Menglin Li, Qingjie Zhang and Xi-Quan Hu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(6), 10974-10988; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150610974 - 18 Jun 2014
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 9145
Abstract
Although physical exercise is an effective strategy for treatment of ischemic stroke, the underlying protective mechanisms are still not well understood. It has been recently demonstrated that neural progenitor cells play a vital role in the recovery of neurological function (NF) through differentiation [...] Read more.
Although physical exercise is an effective strategy for treatment of ischemic stroke, the underlying protective mechanisms are still not well understood. It has been recently demonstrated that neural progenitor cells play a vital role in the recovery of neurological function (NF) through differentiation into mature neurons. In the current study, we observed that physical exercise significantly reduced the infarct size and improved damaged neural functional recovery after an ischemic stroke. Furthermore, we found that the treatment not only exhibited a significant increase in the number of neural progenitor cells and neurons but also decreased the apoptotic cells in the peri-infarct region, compared to a control in the absence of exercise. Importantly, the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)/Akt signaling pathway was dramatically activated in the peri-infarct region of rats after physical exercise training. Therefore, our findings suggest that physical exercise directly influences the NF recovery process by increasing neural progenitor cell count via activation of the IGF-1/Akt signaling pathway. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Damage of Neuroblastoma Cell SH-SY5Y Mediated by MPP+ Inhibits Proliferation of T-Cell Leukemia Jurkat by Co-Culture System
by Fuli Wang, Umer Farooq Awan, Yuanyuan Wang, Luna Wang, Hong Qing, Hong Ma and Yulin Deng
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(6), 10738-10750; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150610738 - 13 Jun 2014
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8676
Abstract
The adaptive immune system has implications in pathology of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Research data demonstrated that the peripheral CD4+ T-cell population decreased in pathogenesis of PD. The effect of damaged dopaminergic neurons on peripheral T cells of PD is still unknown. In [...] Read more.
The adaptive immune system has implications in pathology of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Research data demonstrated that the peripheral CD4+ T-cell population decreased in pathogenesis of PD. The effect of damaged dopaminergic neurons on peripheral T cells of PD is still unknown. In this study, we constructed a neuronal and glial cells co-culture model by using human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y and gliomas cells U87. After the co-culture cells were treated with neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) for 24 h, the conditioned media was harvested and used to cultivate T-cell leukemia Jurkat cells for another 24 h. We then analyzed the cell proliferation, cell cycle and necrosis effect of Jurkat cells. The results showed that co-culture medium of SH-SY5Y and U87 cells with MPP+ treatment inhibited the proliferation of Jurkat cells compared to control medium without MPP+, even though the same concentration of MPP+ had very little toxicity to the Jurkat cell. Furthermore, co-culture medium with low concentration of MPP+ (100 µM) arrested Jurkat cells cycle in G2/M phase through increasing cell cycle division 2 (CDC2) and CyclinB1 expression level, whereas co-culture medium with high concentration of MPP+ (500 µM) induced Jurkat cell necrosis through cellular swelling and membrane breakage. Our data implies that damaged dopamine neurons with glial cells can lead to the reduced number or inhibited proliferation activity of peripheral T cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Ginsenoside Rd Attenuates Mitochondrial Permeability Transition and Cytochrome c Release in Isolated Spinal Cord Mitochondria: Involvement of Kinase-Mediated Pathways
by Jin-Song Zhou, Jiang-Feng Wang, Bao-Rong He, Yong-Sheng Cui, Xiang-Yi Fang, Jian-Long Ni, Jie Chen and Kun-Zheng Wang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(6), 9859-9877; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15069859 - 03 Jun 2014
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6646
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rd (Rd), one of the main active ingredients in Panax ginseng, has multifunctional activity via different mechanisms and neuroprotective effects that are exerted probably via its antioxidant or free radical scavenger action. However, the effects of Rd on spinal cord mitochondrial dysfunction [...] Read more.
Ginsenoside Rd (Rd), one of the main active ingredients in Panax ginseng, has multifunctional activity via different mechanisms and neuroprotective effects that are exerted probably via its antioxidant or free radical scavenger action. However, the effects of Rd on spinal cord mitochondrial dysfunction and underlying mechanisms are still obscure. In this study, we sought to investigate the in vitro effects of Rd on mitochondrial integrity and redox balance in isolated spinal cord mitochondria. We verified that Ca2+ dissipated the membrane potential, provoked mitochondrial swelling and decreased NAD(P)H matrix content, which were all attenuated by Rd pretreatment in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, Rd was not able to inhibit Ca2+ induced mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide generation. The results of Western blot showed that Rd significantly increased the expression of p-Akt and p-ERK, but had no effects on phosphorylation of PKC and p38. In addition, Rd treatment significantly attenuated Ca2+ induced cytochrome c release, which was partly reversed by antagonists of Akt and ERK, but not p-38 inhibitor. The effects of bisindolylmaleimide, a PKC inhibitor, on Rd-induced inhibition of cytochrome c release seem to be at the level of its own detrimental activity on mitochondrial function. Furthermore, we also found that pretreatment with Rd in vivo (10 and 50 mg/kg) protected spinal cord mitochondria against Ca2+ induced mitochondrial membrane potential dissipation and cytochrome c release. It is concluded that Rd regulate mitochondrial permeability transition pore formation and cytochrome c release through protein kinases dependent mechanism involving activation of intramitochondrial Akt and ERK pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Neuroprotective Effects of Citicoline in in Vitro Models of Retinal Neurodegeneration
by Andrea Matteucci, Monica Varano, Lucia Gaddini, Cinzia Mallozzi, Marika Villa, Flavia Pricci and Fiorella Malchiodi-Albedi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(4), 6286-6297; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15046286 - 14 Apr 2014
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 7427
Abstract
In recent years, citicoline has been the object of remarkable interest as a possible neuroprotectant. The aim of this study was to investigate if citicoline affected cell survival in primary retinal cultures and if it exerted neuroprotective activity in conditions modeling retinal neurodegeneration. [...] Read more.
In recent years, citicoline has been the object of remarkable interest as a possible neuroprotectant. The aim of this study was to investigate if citicoline affected cell survival in primary retinal cultures and if it exerted neuroprotective activity in conditions modeling retinal neurodegeneration. Primary retinal cultures, obtained from rat embryos, were first treated with increasing concentrations of citicoline (up to 1000 µM) and analyzed in terms of apoptosis and caspase activation and characterized by immunocytochemistry to identify neuronal and glial cells. Subsequently, excitotoxic concentration of glutamate or High Glucose-containing cell culture medium (HG) was administered as well-known conditions modeling neurodegeneration. Glutamate or HG treatments were performed in the presence or not of citicoline. Neuronal degeneration was evaluated in terms of apoptosis and loss of synapses. The results showed that citicoline did not cause any damage to the retinal neuroglial population up to 1000 µM. At the concentration of 100 µM, it was able to counteract neuronal cell damage both in glutamate- and HG-treated retinal cultures by decreasing proapoptotic effects and contrasting synapse loss. These data confirm that citicoline can efficiently exert a neuroprotective activity. In addition, the results suggest that primary retinal cultures, under conditions inducing neurodegeneration, may represent a useful system to investigate citicoline neuroprotective mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Neuroprotective Effect of Melatonin against Kainic Acid-Induced Oxidative Injury in Hippocampal Slice Culture of Rats
by Hyung A Kim, Kyung Hee Lee and Bae Hwan Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(4), 5940-5951; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15045940 - 09 Apr 2014
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6749
Abstract
Endogenous melatonin is a known free radical scavenger that removes reactive oxygen species (ROS), thus, alleviating oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate its effect against kainic acid (KA)-induced oxidative stress in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs). To observe neuroprotective [...] Read more.
Endogenous melatonin is a known free radical scavenger that removes reactive oxygen species (ROS), thus, alleviating oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate its effect against kainic acid (KA)-induced oxidative stress in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs). To observe neuroprotective effects of melatonin, different concentrations (0.01, 0.1 and 1 mM) of melatonin were administrated after KA treatment for 18 h in OHSCs of rat pups. Dose-response studies showed that neuronal cell death was significantly reduced after 0.1 and 1 mΜ melatonin treatments based on propidium iodide (PI) uptake and cresyl violet staining. The dichlorofluorescein (DCF) fluorescence which indicates ROS formation decreased more in the melatonin-treated group than in the KA group. The expression of 5-lipoxigenase (5-LO) and caspase-3 were reduced in the melatonin-treated groups compared to the KA group. These results suggest that melatonin may be an effective agent against KA-induced oxidative stress in the OHSC model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Cystatin C Has a Dual Role in Post-Traumatic Brain Injury Recovery
by Marina Martinez-Vargas, Maribel Soto-Nuñez, Erika Tabla-Ramon, Barbara Solis, Ruben Gonzalez-Rivera, Adan Perez-Arredondo, Francisco Estrada-Rojo, Andres Castell, Juan Molina-Guarneros and Luz Navarro
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(4), 5807-5820; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15045807 - 04 Apr 2014
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6890
Abstract
Cathepsin B is one of the major lysosomal cysteine proteases involved in neuronal protein catabolism. This cathepsin is released after traumatic injury and increases neuronal death; however, release of cystatin C, a cathepsin inhibitor, appears to be a self-protective brain response. Here we [...] Read more.
Cathepsin B is one of the major lysosomal cysteine proteases involved in neuronal protein catabolism. This cathepsin is released after traumatic injury and increases neuronal death; however, release of cystatin C, a cathepsin inhibitor, appears to be a self-protective brain response. Here we describe the effect of cystatin C intracerebroventricular administration in rats prior to inducing a traumatic brain injury. We observed that cystatin C injection caused a dual response in post-traumatic brain injury recovery: higher doses (350 fmoles) increased bleeding and mortality, whereas lower doses (3.5 to 35 fmoles) decreased bleeding, neuronal damage and mortality. We also analyzed the expression of cathepsin B and cystatin C in the brains of control rats and of rats after a traumatic brain injury. Cathepsin B was detected in the brain stem, cerebellum, hippocampus and cerebral cortex of control rats. Cystatin C was localized to the choroid plexus, brain stem and cerebellum of control rats. Twenty-four hours after traumatic brain injury, we observed changes in both the expression and localization of both proteins in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and brain stem. An early increase and intralysosomal expression of cystatin C after brain injury was associated with reduced neuronal damage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Inhibition of Acetylcholinesterase Modulates NMDA Receptor Antagonist Mediated Alterations in the Developing Brain
by Ivo Bendix, Meray Serdar, Josephine Herz, Clarissa Von Haefen, Fatme Nasser, Benjamin Rohrer, Stefanie Endesfelder, Ursula Felderhoff-Mueser, Claudia D. Spies and Marco Sifringer
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(3), 3784-3798; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15033784 - 03 Mar 2014
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7150
Abstract
Exposure to N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists has been demonstrated to induce neurodegeneration in newborn rats. However, in clinical practice the use of NMDA receptor antagonists as anesthetics and sedatives cannot always be avoided. The present study investigated the effect of the indirect [...] Read more.
Exposure to N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists has been demonstrated to induce neurodegeneration in newborn rats. However, in clinical practice the use of NMDA receptor antagonists as anesthetics and sedatives cannot always be avoided. The present study investigated the effect of the indirect cholinergic agonist physostigmine on neurotrophin expression and the extracellular matrix during NMDA receptor antagonist induced injury to the immature rat brain. The aim was to investigate matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 activity, as well as expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-2 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) after co-administration of the non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK801 (dizocilpine) and the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor physostigmine. The AChE inhibitor physostigmine ameliorated the MK801-induced reduction of BDNF mRNA and protein levels, reduced MK801-triggered MMP-2 activity and prevented decreased TIMP-2 mRNA expression. Our results indicate that AChE inhibition may prevent newborn rats from MK801-mediated brain damage by enhancing neurotrophin-associated signaling pathways and by modulating the extracellular matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Expression of PHB2 in Rat Brain Cortex Following Traumatic Brain Injury
by Ting Xu, Xinjuan Fan, Yuanyuan Tan, Ying Yue, Weijie Chen and Xingxing Gu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 3299-3318; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15023299 - 21 Feb 2014
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 9516
Abstract
Prohibitin2 (PHB2) is a ubiquitous, evolutionarily strongly conserved protein. It is one of the components of the prohibitin complex, which comprises two highly homologous subunits, PHB1 and PHB2. PHB2 is present in various cellular compartments including the nucleus and mitochondria. Recent studies have [...] Read more.
Prohibitin2 (PHB2) is a ubiquitous, evolutionarily strongly conserved protein. It is one of the components of the prohibitin complex, which comprises two highly homologous subunits, PHB1 and PHB2. PHB2 is present in various cellular compartments including the nucleus and mitochondria. Recent studies have identified PHB2 as a multifunctional protein that controls cell proliferation, apoptosis, cristae morphogenesis and the functional integrity of mitochondria. However its distribution and function in the central nervous system (CNS) are not well understood. In this study, we examined PHB2 expression and cellular localization in rats after acute traumatic brain injury (TBI). Western Blot analysis showed PHB2 level was significantly enhanced at five days after injury compared to control, and then declined during the following days. The protein expression of PHB2 was further analyzed by immunohistochemistry. In comparison to contralateral cerebral cortex, we observed a highly significant accumulation of PHB2 at the ipsilateral brain. Immunofluorescence double-labeling showed that PHB2 was co-expressed with NeuN, GFAP. Besides, PHB2 also colocalized with activated caspase-3 and PCNA. To further investigate the function of PHB2, primary cultured astrocytes and the neuronal cell line PC12 were employed to establish a proliferation model and an apoptosis model, respectively, to simulate the cell activity after TBI to a certain degree. Knocking down PHB2 by siRNA partly increased the apoptosis level of PC12 stimulated by H2O2. While the PHB2 was interrupted by siRNA, the proliferation level of primary cultured astrocytes was inhibited notably than that in the control group. Together with our data, we hypothesized that PHB2 might play an important role in CNS pathophysiology after TBI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Interplay between Endothelin and Erythropoietin in Astroglia: The Role in Protection against Hypoxia
by Richard Schäfer, Lars Mueller, Reinhild Buecheler, Barbara Proksch, Matthias Schwab, Christoph H. Gleiter and Lusine Danielyan
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 2858-2875; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15022858 - 19 Feb 2014
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6848
Abstract
We show that, under in vitro conditions, the vulnerability of astroglia to hypoxia is reflected by alterations in endothelin (ET)-1 release and capacity of erythropoietin (EPO) to regulate ET-1 levels. Exposure of cells to 24 h hypoxia did not induce changes in ET-1 [...] Read more.
We show that, under in vitro conditions, the vulnerability of astroglia to hypoxia is reflected by alterations in endothelin (ET)-1 release and capacity of erythropoietin (EPO) to regulate ET-1 levels. Exposure of cells to 24 h hypoxia did not induce changes in ET-1 release, while 48–72 h hypoxia resulted in increase of ET-1 release from astrocytes that could be abolished by EPO. The endothelin receptor type A (ETA) antagonist BQ123 increased extracellular levels of ET-1 in human fetal astroglial cell line (SV-FHAS). The survival and proliferation of rat primary astrocytes, neural precursors, and neurons upon hypoxic conditions were increased upon administration of BQ123. Hypoxic injury and aging affected the interaction between the EPO and ET systems. Under hypoxia EPO decreased ET-1 release from astrocytes, while ETA receptor blockade enhanced the expression of EPO mRNA and EPO receptor in culture-aged rat astroglia. The blockade of ETA receptor can increase the availability of ET-1 to the ETB receptor and can potentiate the neuroprotective effects of EPO. Thus, the new therapeutic use of combined administration of EPO and ETA receptor antagonists during hypoxia-associated neurodegenerative disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) can be suggested. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Antioxidant and Protective Mechanisms against Hypoxia and Hypoglycaemia in Cortical Neurons in Vitro
by José Joaquín Merino, César Roncero, María Jesús Oset-Gasque, Ahmad Naddaf and María Pilar González
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 2475-2493; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15022475 - 12 Feb 2014
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7607
Abstract
In the present work, we have studied whether cell death could be induced in cortical neurons from rats subjected to different period of O2 deprivation and low glucose (ODLG). This “in vitro” model is designed to emulate the penumbra area [...] Read more.
In the present work, we have studied whether cell death could be induced in cortical neurons from rats subjected to different period of O2 deprivation and low glucose (ODLG). This “in vitro” model is designed to emulate the penumbra area under ischemia. In these conditions, cortical neurons displayed loss of mitochondrial respiratory ability however, nor necrosis neither apoptosis occurred despite ROS production. The absence of cellular death could be a consequence of increased antioxidant responses such as superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) and GPX3. In addition, the levels of reduced glutathione were augmented and HIF-1/3α overexpressed. After long periods of ODLG (12–24 h) cortical neurons showed cellular and mitochondrial membrane alterations and did not recuperate cellular viability during reperfusion. This could mean that therapies directed toward prevention of cellular and mitochondrial membrane imbalance or cell death through mechanisms other than necrosis or apoptosis, like authophagy, may be a way to prevent ODLG damage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Beneficial Effects of Melatonin Combined with Exercise on Endogenous Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells Proliferation after Spinal Cord Injury
by Youngjeon Lee, Seunghoon Lee, Sang-Rae Lee, Kanghui Park, Yunkyung Hong, Minkyung Lee, Sookyoung Park, Yunho Jin, Kyu-Tae Chang and Yonggeun Hong
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 2207-2222; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15022207 - 30 Jan 2014
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8257
Abstract
Endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells (eNSPCs) proliferate and differentiate into neurons and glial cells after spinal cord injury (SCI). We have previously shown that melatonin (MT) plus exercise (Ex) had a synergistic effect on functional recovery after SCI. Thus, we hypothesized that combined therapy [...] Read more.
Endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells (eNSPCs) proliferate and differentiate into neurons and glial cells after spinal cord injury (SCI). We have previously shown that melatonin (MT) plus exercise (Ex) had a synergistic effect on functional recovery after SCI. Thus, we hypothesized that combined therapy including melatonin and exercise might exert a beneficial effect on eNSPCs after SCI. Melatonin was administered twice a day and exercise was performed on a treadmill for 15 min, six days per week for 3 weeks after SCI. Immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR analysis were used to determine cell population for late response, in conjunction with histological examination and motor function test. There was marked improvement in hindlimb function in SCI+MT+Ex group at day 14 and 21 after injury, as documented by the reduced size of the spinal lesion and a higher density of dendritic spines and axons; such functional improvements were associated with increased numbers of BrdU-positive cells. Furthermore, MAP2 was increased in the injured thoracic segment, while GFAP was increased in the cervical segment, along with elevated numbers of BrdU-positive nestin-expressing eNSPCs in the SCI+MT+Ex group. The dendritic spine density was augmented markedly in SCI+MT and SCI+MT+Ex groups.These results suggest a synergistic effect of SCI+MT+Ex might create a microenvironment to facilitate proliferation of eNSPCs to effectively replace injured cells and to improve regeneration in SCI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Regulation of an Autoimmune Model for Multiple Sclerosis in Th2-Biased GATA3 Transgenic Mice
by Viromi Fernando, Seiichi Omura, Fumitaka Sato, Eiichiro Kawai, Nicholas E. Martinez, Sadie Faith Elliott, Keigyou Yoh, Satoru Takahashi and Ikuo Tsunoda
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 1700-1718; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15021700 - 23 Jan 2014
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 10256
Abstract
T helper (Th)2 cells have been proposed to play a neuroprotective role in multiple sclerosis (MS). This is mainly based on “loss-of-function” studies in an animal model for MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), using blocking antibodies against Th2 related cytokines, and knockout mice [...] Read more.
T helper (Th)2 cells have been proposed to play a neuroprotective role in multiple sclerosis (MS). This is mainly based on “loss-of-function” studies in an animal model for MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), using blocking antibodies against Th2 related cytokines, and knockout mice lacking Th2-related molecules. We tested whether an increase of Th2 responses (“gain-of-function” approach) could alter EAE, the approach of novel GATA binding protein 3 (GATA3)-transgenic (tg) mice that overexpress GATA3, a transcription factor required for Th2 differentiation. In EAE induced with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)35−55 peptide, GATA3-tg mice had a significantly delayed onset of disease and a less severe maximum clinical score, compared with wild-type C57BL/6 mice. Histologically, GATA3-tg mice had decreased levels of meningitis and demyelination in the spinal cord, and anti-inflammatory cytokine profiles immunologically, however both groups developed similar levels of MOG-specific lymphoproliferative responses. During the early stage, we detected higher levels of interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10, with MOG and mitogen stimulation of regional lymph node cells in GATA3-tg mice. During the late stage, only mitogen stimulation induced higher IL-4 and lower interferon-γ and IL-17 production in GATA3-tg mice. These results suggest that a preexisting bias toward a Th2 immune response may reduce the severity of inflammatory demyelinating diseases, including MS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Resveratrol Partially Prevents Rotenone-Induced Neurotoxicity in Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells through Induction of Heme Oxygenase-1 Dependent Autophagy
by Tsu-Kung Lin, Shang-Der Chen, Yao-Chung Chuang, Hung-Yu Lin, Chi-Ren Huang, Jiin-Haur Chuang, Pei-Wen Wang, Sheng-Teng Huang, Mao-Meng Tiao, Jin-Bor Chen and Chia-Wei Liou
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(1), 1625-1646; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15011625 - 22 Jan 2014
Cited by 139 | Viewed by 13191
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons. Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress or protein misfolding and aggregation may underlie this process. Autophagy is an intracellular catabolic mechanism responsible for protein degradation and recycling of damaged [...] Read more.
Parkinson disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons. Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress or protein misfolding and aggregation may underlie this process. Autophagy is an intracellular catabolic mechanism responsible for protein degradation and recycling of damaged proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. Autophagic dysfunction may hasten the progression of neuronal degeneration. In this study, resveratrol promoted autophagic flux and protected dopaminergic neurons against rotenone-induced apoptosis. In an in vivo PD model, rotenone induced loss of dopaminergic neurons, increased oxidation of mitochondrial proteins and promoted autophagic vesicle development in brain tissue. The natural phytoalexin resveratrol prevented rotenone-induced neuronal apoptosis in vitro, and this pro-survival effect was abolished by an autophagic inhibitor. Although both rotenone and resveratrol promoted LC3-II accumulation, autophagic flux was inhibited by rotenone and augmented by resveratrol. Further, rotenone reduced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression, whereas resveratrol increased HO-1 expression. Pharmacological inhibition of HO-1 abolished resveratrol-mediated autophagy and neuroprotection. Notably, the effects of a pharmacological inducer of HO-1 were similar to those of resveratrol, and protected against rotenone-induced cell death in an autophagy-dependent manner, validating the hypothesis of HO-1 dependent autophagy in preventing neuronal death in the in vitro PD model. Collectively, our findings suggest that resveratrol induces HO-1 expression and prevents dopaminergic cell death by regulating autophagic flux; thus protecting against rotenone-induced neuronal apoptosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Phosphorylation of Histone H2AX in the Mouse Brain from Development to Senescence
by Serena Barral, Riccardo Beltramo, Chiara Salio, Patrizia Aimar, Laura Lossi and Adalberto Merighi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(1), 1554-1573; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15011554 - 21 Jan 2014
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 14378
Abstract
Phosphorylation of the histone H2AX (γH2AX form) is an early response to DNA damage and a marker of aging and disease in several cells and tissues outside the nervous system. Little is known about in vivo phosphorylation of H2AX in neurons, although it [...] Read more.
Phosphorylation of the histone H2AX (γH2AX form) is an early response to DNA damage and a marker of aging and disease in several cells and tissues outside the nervous system. Little is known about in vivo phosphorylation of H2AX in neurons, although it was suggested that γH2AX is an early marker of neuronal endangerment thus opening the possibility to target it as a neuroprotective strategy. After experimental labeling of DNA-synthesizing cells with 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU), we studied the brain occurrence of γH2AX in developing, postnatal, adult and senescent (2 years) mice by light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. Focal and/or diffuse γH2AX immunostaining appears in interkinetic nuclei, mitotic chromosomes, and apoptotic nuclei. Immunoreactivity is mainly associated with neurogenetic areas, i.e., the subventricular zone (SVZ) of telencephalon, the cerebellar cortex, and, albeit to a much lesser extent, the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus. In addition, γH2AX is highly expressed in the adult and senescent cerebral cortex, particularly the piriform cortex. Double labeling experiments demonstrate that γH2AX in neurogenetic brain areas is temporally and functionally related to proliferation and apoptosis of neuronal precursors, i.e., the type C transit amplifying cells (SVZ) and the granule cell precursors (cerebellum). Conversely, γH2AX-immunoreactive cortical neurons incorporating the S phase-label BrdU do not express the proliferation marker phosphorylated histone H3, indicating that these postmitotic cells undergo a significant DNA damage response. Our study paves the way for a better comprehension of the role of H2AX phosphorylation in the normal brain, and offers additional data to design novel strategies for the protection of neuronal precursors and mature neurons in central nervous system (CNS) degenerative diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Phenoxybenzamine Is Neuroprotective in a Rat Model of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
by Thomas F. Rau, Aakriti Kothiwal, Annela Rova, Joseph F. Rhoderick and David J. Poulsen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(1), 1402-1417; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15011402 - 20 Jan 2014
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6705
Abstract
Phenoxybenzamine (PBZ) is an FDA approved α-1 adrenergic receptor antagonist that is currently used to treat symptoms of pheochromocytoma. However, it has not been studied as a neuroprotective agent for traumatic brain injury (TBI). While screening neuroprotective candidates, we found that phenoxybenzamine reduced [...] Read more.
Phenoxybenzamine (PBZ) is an FDA approved α-1 adrenergic receptor antagonist that is currently used to treat symptoms of pheochromocytoma. However, it has not been studied as a neuroprotective agent for traumatic brain injury (TBI). While screening neuroprotective candidates, we found that phenoxybenzamine reduced neuronal death in rat hippocampal slice cultures following exposure to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). Using this system, we found that phenoxybenzamine reduced neuronal death over a broad dose range (0.1 µM–1 mM) and provided efficacy when delivered up to 16 h post-OGD. We further tested phenoxybenzamine in the rat lateral fluid percussion model of TBI. When administered 8 h after TBI, phenoxybenzamine improved neurological severity scoring and foot fault assessments. At 25 days post injury, phenoxybenzamine treated TBI animals also showed a significant improvement in both learning and memory compared to saline treated controls. We further examined gene expression changes within the cortex following TBI. At 32 h post-TBI phenoxybenzamine treated animals had significantly lower expression of pro-inflammatory signaling proteins CCL2, IL1β, and MyD88, suggesting that phenoxybenzamine may exert a neuroprotective effect by reducing neuroinflammation after TBI. These data suggest that phenonxybenzamine may have application in the treatment of TBI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Alteration of Dynein Function Affects α-Synuclein Degradation via the Autophagosome-Lysosome Pathway
by Da Li, Ji-Jun Shi, Cheng-Jie Mao, Sha Liu, Jian-Da Wang, Jing Chen, Fen Wang, Ya-Ping Yang, Wei-Dong Hu, Li-Fang Hu and Chun-Feng Liu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(12), 24242-24254; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141224242 - 13 Dec 2013
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8063
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that dynein dysfunction may be implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration. It plays a central role in aggresome formation, the delivery of autophagosome to lysosome for fusion and degradation, which is a pro-survival mechanism essential for the bulk degradation of [...] Read more.
Growing evidence suggests that dynein dysfunction may be implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration. It plays a central role in aggresome formation, the delivery of autophagosome to lysosome for fusion and degradation, which is a pro-survival mechanism essential for the bulk degradation of misfolded proteins and damaged organells. Previous studies reported that dynein dysfuntion was associated with aberrant aggregation of α-synuclein, which is a major component of inclusion bodies in Parkinson’s disease (PD). However, it remains unclear what roles dynein plays in α-synuclein degradation. Our study demonstrated a decrease of dynein expression in neurotoxin-induced PD models in vitro and in vivo, accompanied by an increase of α-synuclein protein level. Dynein down-regulation induced by siRNA resulted in a prolonged half-life of α-synuclein and its over-accumulation in A53T overexpressing PC12 cells. Dynein knockdown also prompted the increase of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3-II) and sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1, p62) expression, and the accumulation of autophagic vacuoles. Moreover, dynein suppression impaired the autophagosome fusion with lysosome. In summary, our findings indicate that dynein is critical for the clearance of aberrant α-synuclein via autophagosome-lysosome pathway. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Neuritogenic Monoglyceride Derived from the Constituent of a Marine Fish for Activating the PI3K/ERK/CREB Signalling Pathways in PC12 Cells
by Wei Yang, Yan Luo, Ruiqi Tang, Hui Zhang, Ying Ye, Lan Xiang and Jianhua Qi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(12), 24200-24210; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141224200 - 12 Dec 2013
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6397
Abstract
A neuritogenic monoglyceride, 1-O-(myristoyl) glycerol (MG), was isolated from the head of Ilisha elongate using a PC12 cell bioassay system, and its chemical structure was elucidated using spectroscopic methods. MG significantly induced 42% of the neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells at [...] Read more.
A neuritogenic monoglyceride, 1-O-(myristoyl) glycerol (MG), was isolated from the head of Ilisha elongate using a PC12 cell bioassay system, and its chemical structure was elucidated using spectroscopic methods. MG significantly induced 42% of the neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells at a concentration of 10 μM. To study the structure-activity relationships of MG, a series of monoglycerides was designed and synthesised. Bioassay results indicated that the alkyl chain length plays a key role in the neuritogenic activity of the monoglycerides. The groups that link the propane-1,2-diol and alkyl chain were also investigated. An ester linkage, rather than an amido one, was found to be optimal for neuritogenic activity. Therefore, 1-O-(stearoyl) glycerol (SG), which induces 57% of the neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells at 10 μM, was determined to be a lead compound for neuritogenic activity. We then investigated the mechanism of action of neurite outgrowth induced by SG on PC12 cells using protein specific inhibitors and Western blot analysis. The mitogen-activated kinase/ERK kinase (MEK) inhibitor U0126 and the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 significantly decreased neurite outgrowth. At the same time, SG increased phosphorylation of CREB in protein level. Thus, SG-induced neuritogenic activity depends on the activation of the extracellular-regulated protein kinase (ERK), cAMP responsive element-binding protein (CREB) and PI3K signalling pathways in PC12 cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Does the Neuroprotective Role of Anandamide Display Diurnal Variations?
by Marina Martinez-Vargas, Julio Morales-Gomez, Ruben Gonzalez-Rivera, Carla Hernandez-Enriquez, Adan Perez-Arredondo, Francisco Estrada-Rojo and Luz Navarro
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(12), 23341-23355; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141223341 - 27 Nov 2013
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6724
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system is a component of the neuroprotective mechanisms that an organism displays after traumatic brain injury (TBI). A diurnal variation in several components of this system has been reported. This variation may influence the recovery and survival rate after TBI. We [...] Read more.
The endocannabinoid system is a component of the neuroprotective mechanisms that an organism displays after traumatic brain injury (TBI). A diurnal variation in several components of this system has been reported. This variation may influence the recovery and survival rate after TBI. We have previously reported that the recovery and survival rate of rats is higher if TBI occurs at 1:00 than at 13:00. This could be explained by a diurnal variation of the endocannabinoid system. Here, we describe the effects of anandamide administration in rats prior to the induction of TBI at two different times of the day: 1:00 and 13:00. We found that anandamide reduced the neurological damage at both times. Nevertheless, its effects on bleeding, survival, food intake, and body weight were dependent on the time of TBI. In addition, we analyzed the diurnal variation of the expression of the cannabinoid receptors CB1R and CB2R in the cerebral cortex of both control rats and rats subjected to TBI. We found that CB1R protein was expressed more during the day, whereas its mRNA level was higher during the night. We did not find a diurnal variation for the CB2R. In addition, we also found that TBI increased CB1R and CB2R in the contralateral hemisphere and disrupted the CB1R diurnal cycle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Onjisaponin B Derived from Radix Polygalae Enhances Autophagy and Accelerates the Degradation of Mutant α-Synuclein and Huntingtin in PC-12 Cells
by An-Guo Wu, Vincent Kam-Wai Wong, Su-Wei Xu, Wai-Kit Chan, Choi-In Ng, Liang Liu and Betty Yuen-Kwan Law
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(11), 22618-22641; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141122618 - 15 Nov 2013
Cited by 96 | Viewed by 12018
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates important protective roles being played by autophagy in neurodegenerative disorders through clearance of aggregate-prone or mutant proteins. In the current study, we aimed to identify autophagy inducers from Chinese medicinal herbs as a potential neuroprotective agent that enhances the clearance [...] Read more.
Emerging evidence indicates important protective roles being played by autophagy in neurodegenerative disorders through clearance of aggregate-prone or mutant proteins. In the current study, we aimed to identify autophagy inducers from Chinese medicinal herbs as a potential neuroprotective agent that enhances the clearance of mutant huntingtin and α-synuclein in PC-12 cells. Through intensive screening using the green fluorescent protein-light chain 3 (GFP-LC3) autophagy detection platform, we found that the ethanol extracts of Radix Polygalae (Yuan Zhi) were capable of inducing autophagy. Further investigation showed that among three single components derived from Radix Polygalaei.e., polygalacic acid, senegenin and onjisaponin B—onjisaponin B was able to induce autophagy and accelerate both the removal of mutant huntingtin and A53T α-synuclein, which are highly associated with Huntington disease and Parkinson disease, respectively. Our study further demonstrated that onjisaponin B induces autophagy via the AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway. Therefore, findings in the current study provide detailed insights into the protective mechanism of a novel autophagy inducer, which is valuable for further investigation as a new candidate agent for modulating neurodegenerative disorders through the reduction of toxicity and clearance of mutant proteins in the cellular level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Environmental Enrichment Decreases Asphyxia-Induced Neurobehavioral Developmental Delay in Neonatal Rats
by Peter Kiss, Gyongyver Vadasz, Blanka Kiss-Illes, Gabor Horvath, Andrea Tamas, Dora Reglodi and Miklos Koppan
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(11), 22258-22273; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141122258 - 13 Nov 2013
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7406
Abstract
Perinatal asphyxia during delivery produces long-term disability and represents a major problem in neonatal and pediatric care. Numerous neuroprotective approaches have been described to decrease the effects of perinatal asphyxia. Enriched environment is a popular strategy to counteract nervous system injuries. The aim [...] Read more.
Perinatal asphyxia during delivery produces long-term disability and represents a major problem in neonatal and pediatric care. Numerous neuroprotective approaches have been described to decrease the effects of perinatal asphyxia. Enriched environment is a popular strategy to counteract nervous system injuries. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether enriched environment is able to decrease the asphyxia-induced neurobehavioral developmental delay in neonatal rats. Asphyxia was induced in ready-to-deliver mothers by removing the pups by caesarian section after 15 min of asphyxia. Somatic and neurobehavioral development was tested daily and motor coordination weekly. Our results show that rats undergoing perinatal asphyxia had a marked developmental delay and worse performance in motor coordination tests. However, pups kept in enriched environment showed a decrease in the developmental delay observed in control asphyctic pups. Rats growing up in enriched environment did not show decrease in weight gain after the first week and the delay in reflex appearance was not as marked as in control rats. In addition, the development of motor coordination was not as strikingly delayed as in the control group. Short-term neurofunctional outcome are known to correlate with long-term deficits. Our results thus show that enriched environment could be a powerful strategy to decrease the deleterious developmental effects of perinatal asphyxia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Neuroprotective Effect of Arctigenin via Upregulation of P-CREB in Mouse Primary Neurons and Human SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells
by Nan Zhang, Qingping Wen, Lu Ren, Wenbo Liang, Yang Xia, Xiaodan Zhang, Dan Zhao, Dong Sun, Yv Hu, Haiguang Hao, Yaping Yan, Guangxian Zhang, Jingxian Yang and Tingguo Kang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(9), 18657-18669; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140918657 - 10 Sep 2013
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8970
Abstract
Arctigenin (Arc) has been shown to act on scopolamine-induced memory deficit mice and to provide a neuroprotective effect on cultured cortical neurons from glutamate-induced neurodegeneration through mechanisms not completely defined. Here, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of Arc on H89-induced cell damage and [...] Read more.
Arctigenin (Arc) has been shown to act on scopolamine-induced memory deficit mice and to provide a neuroprotective effect on cultured cortical neurons from glutamate-induced neurodegeneration through mechanisms not completely defined. Here, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of Arc on H89-induced cell damage and its potential mechanisms in mouse cortical neurons and human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. We found that Arc prevented cell viability loss induced by H89 in human SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, Arc reduced intracellular beta amyloid (Aβ) production induced by H89 in neurons and human SH-SY5Y cells, and Arc also inhibited the presenilin 1(PS1) protein level in neurons. In addition, neural apoptosis in both types of cells, inhibition of neurite outgrowth in human SH-SY5Y cells and reduction of synaptic marker synaptophysin (SYN) expression in neurons were also observed after H89 exposure. All these effects induced by H89 were markedly reversed by Arc treatment. Arc also significantly attenuated downregulation of the phosphorylation of CREB (p-CREB) induced by H89, which may contribute to the neuroprotective effects of Arc. These results demonstrated that Arc exerted the ability to protect neurons and SH-SY5Y cells against H89-induced cell injury via upregulation of p-CREB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Neuroprotective Effects of α-Tocotrienol on Kainic Acid-Induced Neurotoxicity in Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures
by Na Young Jung, Kyung Hee Lee, Ran Won and Bae Hwan Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(9), 18256-18268; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140918256 - 05 Sep 2013
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6734
Abstract
Vitamin E, such as alpha-tocopherol (ATPH) and alpha-tocotrienol (ATTN), is a chain-breaking antioxidant that prevents the chain propagation step during lipid peroxidation. In the present study, we investigated the effects of ATTN on KA-induced neuronal death using organotypic hippocampal slice culture (OHSC) and [...] Read more.
Vitamin E, such as alpha-tocopherol (ATPH) and alpha-tocotrienol (ATTN), is a chain-breaking antioxidant that prevents the chain propagation step during lipid peroxidation. In the present study, we investigated the effects of ATTN on KA-induced neuronal death using organotypic hippocampal slice culture (OHSC) and compared the neuroprotective effects of ATTN and ATPH. After 15 h KA (5 µM) treatment, delayed neuronal death was detected in the CA3 region and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and lipid peroxidation were also increased. Both co-treatment and post-treatment of ATPH (100 µM) or ATTN (100 µM) significantly increased the cell survival and reduced the number of TUNEL-positive cells in the CA3 region. Increased dichlorofluorescein (DCF) fluorescence and levels of thiobarbiturate reactive substances (TBARS) were decreased by ATPH and ATTN treatment. These data suggest that ATPH and ATTN treatment have protective effects on KA-induced cell death in OHSC. ATTN treatment tended to be more effective than ATPH treatment, even though there was no significant difference between ATPH and ATTN in co-treatment or post-treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Endogenous Protease Nexin-1 Protects against Cerebral Ischemia
by Osvaldo Mirante, Melanie Price, Wilfredo Puentes, Ximena Castillo, Corinne Benakis, Jonathan Thevenet, Denis Monard and Lorenz Hirt
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(8), 16719-16731; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140816719 - 14 Aug 2013
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8040
Abstract
The serine protease thrombin plays a role in signalling ischemic neuronal death in the brain. Paradoxically, endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms can be triggered by preconditioning with thrombin (thrombin preconditioning, TPC), leading to tolerance to cerebral ischemia. Here we studied the role of thrombin’s endogenous [...] Read more.
The serine protease thrombin plays a role in signalling ischemic neuronal death in the brain. Paradoxically, endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms can be triggered by preconditioning with thrombin (thrombin preconditioning, TPC), leading to tolerance to cerebral ischemia. Here we studied the role of thrombin’s endogenous potent inhibitor, protease nexin-1 (PN-1), in ischemia and in tolerance to cerebral ischemia induced by TPC. Cerebral ischemia was modelled in vitro in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures from rats or genetically engineered mice lacking PN-1 or with the reporter gene lacZ knocked into the PN-1 locus PN-1HAPN-1-lacZ/HAPN-1-lacZ (PN-1 KI) exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). We observed increased thrombin enzyme activity in culture homogenates 24 h after OGD. Lack of PN-1 increased neuronal death in the CA1, suggesting that endogenous PN-1 inhibits thrombin-induced neuronal damage after ischemia. OGD enhanced β-galactosidase activity, reflecting PN-1 expression, at one and 24 h, most strikingly in the stratum radiatum, a glial cell layer adjacent to the CA1 layer of ischemia sensitive neurons. TPC, 24 h before OGD, additionally increased PN-1 expression 1 h after OGD, compared to OGD alone. TPC failed to induce tolerance in cultures from PN-1−/− mice confirming PN-1 as an important TPC target. PN-1 upregulation after TPC was blocked by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor, L-JNKI1, known to block TPC. This work suggests that PN-1 is an endogenous neuroprotectant in cerebral ischemia and a potential target for neuroprotection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Gender-Dependent Effects of Enriched Environment and Social Isolation in Ischemic Retinal Lesion in Adult Rats
by Peter Kiss, Krisztina Szabadfi, Gabor Horvath, Andrea Tamas, Jozsef Farkas, Robert Gabriel and Dora Reglodi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(8), 16111-16123; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140816111 - 05 Aug 2013
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6841
Abstract
Exposure to an enriched environment has been shown to have many positive effects on brain structure and function. Numerous studies have proven that enriched environment can reduce the lesion induced by toxic and traumatic injuries. Impoverished environment, on the other hand, can have [...] Read more.
Exposure to an enriched environment has been shown to have many positive effects on brain structure and function. Numerous studies have proven that enriched environment can reduce the lesion induced by toxic and traumatic injuries. Impoverished environment, on the other hand, can have deleterious effects on the outcome of neuronal injuries. We have previously shown that enriched conditions have protective effects in retinal injury in newborn rats. It is well-known that the efficacy of neuroprotective strategies can depend on age and gender. The aim of the present study, therefore, was to examine the effects of environmental enrichment and social isolation in retinal ischemia. We used bilateral common carotid artery occlusion to induce retinal hypoperfusion in adult Wistar rats of both genders. Groups were housed in standard, enriched or impoverished conditions. Impoverished environment was induced by social isolation. Retinas were processed for histological analysis after two weeks of survival. In the present study, we show that (1) enriched environment has protective effects in adult ischemic retinal lesion, while (2) impoverished environment further increases the degree of ischemic injury, and (3) that these environmental effects are gender-dependent: females are less responsive to the positive effects of environmental enrichment and more vulnerable to retinal ischemia in social isolation. In summary, our present study shows that the effects of both positive and negative environmental stimuli are gender-dependent in ischemic retinal lesions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Dose-Dependent Protective Effect of Bisperoxovanadium against Acute Cerebral Ischemia in a Rat Model of Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury
by Jian-Yi Guo, Jun Ding, Fang Yuan, Hao Chen, Shi-Wen Chen and Heng-Li Tian
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(6), 12013-12022; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140612013 - 05 Jun 2013
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7199
Abstract
PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10) is a dual-specificity lipid and protein phosphatase. The loss of PTEN was originally discovered in numerous human cancers. PTEN inhibition by bisperoxovanadium (bpV) reduces neurological damage after ischemic brain injury. The purpose of this [...] Read more.
PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10) is a dual-specificity lipid and protein phosphatase. The loss of PTEN was originally discovered in numerous human cancers. PTEN inhibition by bisperoxovanadium (bpV) reduces neurological damage after ischemic brain injury. The purpose of this study was to identify the optimal neuroprotective dose of bpV when administrated after focal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats. Focal I/R injury was induced using the middle cerebral artery occlusion method. bpV at doses of 0.25, 0.50 and 1.0 mg/kg were injected intraperitoneally just after reperfusion, with saline serving as a vehicle control. A maximal reduction in brain injury was observed with 1.0 mg/kg bpV. This dose of bpV also significantly blocked apoptosis in the penumbral cortex of rats. This beneficial effect was associated with the increasing levels of Akt phosphorylation in the penumbral cortex. These results demonstrate that the pharmacological inhibition of PTEN protects against I/R injury in a dose-dependent manner and the protective effect might be induced through upregulation of the phosphoinositide-3 kinase/Akt pro-survival pathway, suggesting a new therapeutic strategy to combat ischemic brain injury. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Early Exercise Protects the Blood-Brain Barrier from Ischemic Brain Injury via the Regulation of MMP-9 and Occludin in Rats
by Yuling Zhang, Pengyue Zhang, Xiafeng Shen, Shan Tian, Yi Wu, Yulian Zhu, Jie Jia, Junfa Wu and Yongshan Hu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(6), 11096-11112; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140611096 - 24 May 2013
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 10806
Abstract
Early exercise within 24 h after stroke can reduce neurological deficits after ischemic brain injury. However, the mechanisms underlying this neuroprotection remain poorly understood. Ischemic brain injury disrupts the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and then triggers a cascade of events, leading to secondary brain [...] Read more.
Early exercise within 24 h after stroke can reduce neurological deficits after ischemic brain injury. However, the mechanisms underlying this neuroprotection remain poorly understood. Ischemic brain injury disrupts the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and then triggers a cascade of events, leading to secondary brain injury and poor long-term outcomes. This study verified the hypothesis that early exercise protected the BBB after ischemia. Adult rats were randomly assigned to sham, early exercise (EE) or non-exercise (NE) groups. The EE and NE groups were subjected to ischemia induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The EE group ran on a treadmill beginning 24 h after ischemia, 30 min per day for three days. After three-days’ exercise, EB extravasation and electron microscopy were used to evaluate the integrity of the BBB. Neurological deficits, cerebral infarct volume and the expression of MMP-9, the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), and occludin were determined. The data indicated that early exercise significantly inhibited the ischemia-induced reduction of occludin, and an increase in MMP-9 promoted TIMP-1 expression (p < 0.01), attenuated the BBB disruption (p < 0.05) and neurological deficits (p < 0.01) and diminished the infarct volume (p < 0.01). Our results suggest that the neuroprotection conferred by early exercise was likely achieved by improving the function of the BBB via the regulation of MMP-9 and occludin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Ischemic Preconditioning Protects against Spinal Cord Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Rabbits by Attenuating Blood Spinal Cord Barrier Disruption
by Bo Fang, Xiao-Man Li, Xi-Jia Sun, Na-Ren Bao, Xiao-Yan Ren, Huang-Wei Lv and Hong Ma
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(5), 10343-10354; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140510343 - 17 May 2013
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 8027
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning has been reported to protect against spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. To investigate this, Japanese white rabbits underwent I-R (30 min aortic occlusion followed by reperfusion), ischemic preconditioning (three cycles of 5 min [...] Read more.
Ischemic preconditioning has been reported to protect against spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. To investigate this, Japanese white rabbits underwent I-R (30 min aortic occlusion followed by reperfusion), ischemic preconditioning (three cycles of 5 min aortic occlusion plus 5 min reperfusion) followed by I-R, or sham surgery. At 4 and 24 h following reperfusion, neurological function was assessed using Tarlov scores, blood spinal cord barrier permeability was measured by Evan’s Blue extravasation, spinal cord edema was evaluated using the wet-dry method, and spinal cord expression of zonula occluden-1 (ZO-1), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured by Western blot and a real-time polymerase chain reaction. ZO-1 was also assessed using immunofluorescence. Spinal cord I-R injury reduced neurologic scores, and ischemic preconditioning treatment ameliorated this effect. Ischemic preconditioning inhibited I-R-induced increases in blood spinal cord barrier permeability and water content, increased ZO-1 mRNA and protein expression, and reduced MMP-9 and TNF-α mRNA and protein expression. These findings suggest that ischemic preconditioning attenuates the increase in blood spinal cord barrier permeability due to spinal cord I-R injury by preservation of tight junction protein ZO-1 and reducing MMP-9 and TNF-α expression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Article
Induction of Neuronal Differentiation of Rat Muscle-Derived Stem Cells in Vitro Using Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor and Ethosuximide
by Mi Lan Kang, Jin Seon Kwon and Moon Suk Kim
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(4), 6614-6623; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14046614 - 25 Mar 2013
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7800
Abstract
Several studies have demonstrated that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) can induce neural differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. In this study, we investigated the neural differentiation of muscle-derived stem cells (MDSCs) following treatment with bFGF and ethosuximide, a small molecule used as an [...] Read more.
Several studies have demonstrated that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) can induce neural differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. In this study, we investigated the neural differentiation of muscle-derived stem cells (MDSCs) following treatment with bFGF and ethosuximide, a small molecule used as an anticonvulsant in humans. Stem cells isolated from rat skeletal muscle (rMDSCs) were pre-induced by culturing with 25 ng/mL bFGF for 24 h and then were transferred to a medium supplemented with or without 4 mM ethosuximide. Neuronal differentiation was assessed by immunocytochemical and western blotting analyses of marker expression. Immunocytochemistry of rMDSCs treated with bFGF and ethosuximide identified abundant cells expressing neuronal markers (TuJ1, neuron-specific class III β-tubulin; NeuN, neuronal nuclear antigen; and NF-MH; neurofilament M and H). Olig2 (oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2)-positive cells were also observed, indicating the presence of oligodendrocyte lineage cells. These findings were substantiated by western blotting analysis of marker proteins. In particular, the expression of NeuN and TuJ1 was significantly higher in rMDSCs treated with ethosuximide and bFGF than in cells stimulated with bFGF alone (NeuN, p < 0.05 and TuJ1, p < 0.001). Expression of the astrocyte marker GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) was not detected in this study. Collectively, the results showed that treatment with bFGF and ethosuximide induced effective transdifferentiation of rMDSCs into cells with a neural-like phenotype. Notably, rMDSCs treated with a combination of bFGF plus ethosuximide showed enhanced differentiation compared with cells treated with bFGF alone, implying that ethosuximide may stimulate neuronal differentiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Review

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Review
Stem Cell Treatment for Alzheimer’s Disease
by Ming Li, Kequan Guo and Susumu Ikehara
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(10), 19226-19238; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151019226 - 23 Oct 2014
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 14614
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive and neurodegenerative disorder that induces dementia in older people. It was first reported in 1907 by Alois Alzheimer, who characterized the disease as causing memory loss and cognitive impairment. Pathologic characteristics of AD are β-amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive and neurodegenerative disorder that induces dementia in older people. It was first reported in 1907 by Alois Alzheimer, who characterized the disease as causing memory loss and cognitive impairment. Pathologic characteristics of AD are β-amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neurodegeneration. Current therapies only target the relief of symptoms using various drugs, and do not cure the disease. Recently, stem cell therapy has been shown to be a potential approach to various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, and in this review, we focus on stem cell therapies for AD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Review
Argon: Systematic Review on Neuro- and Organoprotective Properties of an “Inert” Gas
by Anke Höllig, Anita Schug, Astrid V. Fahlenkamp, Rolf Rossaint, Mark Coburn and Argon Organo-Protective Network (AON)
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(10), 18175-18196; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms151018175 - 10 Oct 2014
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 9232
Abstract
Argon belongs to the group of noble gases, which are regarded as chemically inert. Astonishingly some of these gases exert biological properties and during the last decades more and more reports demonstrated neuroprotective and organoprotective effects. Recent studies predominately use in vivo or [...] Read more.
Argon belongs to the group of noble gases, which are regarded as chemically inert. Astonishingly some of these gases exert biological properties and during the last decades more and more reports demonstrated neuroprotective and organoprotective effects. Recent studies predominately use in vivo or in vitro models for ischemic pathologies to investigate the effect of argon treatment. Promising data has been published concerning pathologies like cerebral ischemia, traumatic brain injury and hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. However, models applied and administration of the therapeutic gas vary. Here we provide a systematic review to summarize the available data on argon’s neuro- and organoprotective effects and discuss its possible mechanism of action. We aim to provide a summary to allow further studies with a more homogeneous setting to investigate possible clinical applications of argon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Review
Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products (RAGE) and Its Ligands: Focus on Spinal Cord Injury
by Juhyun Song, Won Taek Lee, Kyung Ah Park and Jong Eun Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(8), 13172-13191; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150813172 - 25 Jul 2014
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 11295
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in neuronal and glial death and the loss of axons at the injury site. Inflammation after SCI leads to the inhibition of tissue regeneration and reduced neuronal survival. In addition, the loss of axons after SCI results in [...] Read more.
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in neuronal and glial death and the loss of axons at the injury site. Inflammation after SCI leads to the inhibition of tissue regeneration and reduced neuronal survival. In addition, the loss of axons after SCI results in functional loss below the site of injury accompanied by neuronal cell body’s damage. Consequently, reducing inflammation and promoting axonal regeneration after SCI is a worthy therapeutic goal. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a transmembrane protein and receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily. RAGE is implicated in inflammation and neurodegeneration. Several recent studies demonstrated an association between RAGE and central nervous system disorders through various mechanisms. However, the relationship between RAGE and SCI has not been shown. It is imperative to elucidate the association between RAGE and SCI, considering that RAGE relates to inflammation and axonal degeneration following SCI. Hence, the present review highlights recent research regarding RAGE as a compelling target for the treatment of SCI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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Review
Carriers in Cell-Based Therapies for Neurological Disorders
by Francisca S. Y. Wong, Barbara P. Chan and Amy C. Y. Lo
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(6), 10669-10723; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms150610669 - 13 Jun 2014
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7396
Abstract
There is a pressing need for long-term neuroprotective and neuroregenerative therapies to promote full function recovery of injuries in the human nervous system resulting from trauma, stroke or degenerative diseases. Although cell-based therapies are promising in supporting repair and regeneration, direct introduction to [...] Read more.
There is a pressing need for long-term neuroprotective and neuroregenerative therapies to promote full function recovery of injuries in the human nervous system resulting from trauma, stroke or degenerative diseases. Although cell-based therapies are promising in supporting repair and regeneration, direct introduction to the injury site is plagued by problems such as low transplanted cell survival rate, limited graft integration, immunorejection, and tumor formation. Neural tissue engineering offers an integrative and multifaceted approach to tackle these complex neurological disorders. Synergistic therapeutic effects can be obtained from combining customized biomaterial scaffolds with cell-based therapies. Current scaffold-facilitated cell transplantation strategies aim to achieve structural and functional rescue via offering a three-dimensional permissive and instructive environment for sustainable neuroactive factor production for prolonged periods and/or cell replacement at the target site. In this review, we intend to highlight important considerations in biomaterial selection and to review major biodegradable or non-biodegradable scaffolds used for cell transplantation to the central and peripheral nervous system in preclinical and clinical trials. Expanded knowledge in biomaterial properties and their prolonged interaction with transplanted and host cells have greatly expanded the possibilities for designing suitable carrier systems and the potential of cell therapies in the nervous system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
263 KiB  
Review
Nanomedicine-Based Neuroprotective Strategies in Patient Specific-iPSC and Personalized Medicine
by Shih-Fan Jang, Wei-Hsiu Liu, Wen-Shin Song, Kuan-Lin Chiang, Hsin-I Ma, Chung-Lan Kao and Ming-Teh Chen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(3), 3904-3925; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15033904 - 04 Mar 2014
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8574
Abstract
In recent decades, nanotechnology has attracted major interests in view of drug delivery systems and therapies against diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and many others. Nanotechnology provides the opportunity for nanoscale particles or molecules (so called “Nanomedicine”) to be delivered to the [...] Read more.
In recent decades, nanotechnology has attracted major interests in view of drug delivery systems and therapies against diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and many others. Nanotechnology provides the opportunity for nanoscale particles or molecules (so called “Nanomedicine”) to be delivered to the targeted sites, thereby, reducing toxicity (or side effects) and improving drug bioavailability. Nowadays, a great deal of nano-structured particles/vehicles has been discovered, including polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Nanomedical utilizations have already been well developed in many different aspects, including disease treatment, diagnostic, medical devices designing, and visualization (i.e., cell trafficking). However, while quite a few successful progressions on chemotherapy using nanotechnology have been developed, the implementations of nanoparticles on stem cell research are still sparsely populated. Stem cell applications and therapies are being considered to offer an outstanding potential in the treatment for numbers of maladies. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state. Although the exact mechanisms underlying are still unclear, iPSCs are already being considered as useful tools for drug development/screening and modeling of diseases. Recently, personalized medicines have drawn great attentions in biological and pharmaceutical studies. Generally speaking, personalized medicine is a therapeutic model that offers a customized healthcare/cure being tailored to a specific patient based on his own genetic information. Consequently, the combination of nanomedicine and iPSCs could actually be the potent arms for remedies in transplantation medicine and personalized medicine. This review will focus on current use of nanoparticles on therapeutical applications, nanomedicine-based neuroprotective manipulations in patient specific-iPSCs and personalized medicine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
208 KiB  
Review
Notes on the Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis, with Special Reference to Dietary Habits
by Klaus Lauer
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(3), 3533-3545; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15033533 - 26 Feb 2014
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8251
Abstract
A hypothesis, based primarily on the occurrence of multiple sclerosis (MS) in the Faroe Islands and supported by numerous analytical epidemiological studies, is described. It proposes that MS is caused by the interaction of a virus disease with intestinal pathology, e.g., infectious mononucleosis, [...] Read more.
A hypothesis, based primarily on the occurrence of multiple sclerosis (MS) in the Faroe Islands and supported by numerous analytical epidemiological studies, is described. It proposes that MS is caused by the interaction of a virus disease with intestinal pathology, e.g., infectious mononucleosis, and application of smoked and nitrate/nitrite-cured meat products in the diet during circumscribed time intervals. The biological mechanisms might involve a break of tolerance by an alteration of self within the central nervous system, by nitrophenylated compounds conjugated to animal tissue, in particular to proteins occurring in the central nervous system. Further research is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
640 KiB  
Review
Apoptosis Signal Regulating Kinase 1 (ASK1): Potential as a Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer’s Disease
by Juhyun Song, Kyung Ah Park, Won Taek Lee and Jong Eun Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 2119-2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15022119 - 29 Jan 2014
Cited by 60 | Viewed by 11535
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, characterized by a decline in memory and cognitive function. Clinical manifestations of AD are closely associated with the formation of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, neuronal loss and cognitive decline. Apoptosis signal regulating [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, characterized by a decline in memory and cognitive function. Clinical manifestations of AD are closely associated with the formation of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, neuronal loss and cognitive decline. Apoptosis signal regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is a mediator of the MAPK pathway, which regulates various cellular responses such as apoptosis, cell survival, and differentiation. Accumulating evidence indicates that ASK1 plays a key role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington’s disease and AD. Of particular interest, ASK1 is associated with many signaling pathways, which include endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated apoptosis, Aβ-induced neurotoxicity, tau protein phosphorylation, and insulin signal transduction. Here, we review experimental evidence that links ASK1 signaling and AD pathogenesis and propose that ASK1 might be a new point of therapeutic intervention to prevent or treat AD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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257 KiB  
Review
Antioxidant Drug Therapy Approaches for Neuroprotection in Chronic Diseases of the Retina
by Andrew J. Payne, Simon Kaja, Yuliya Naumchuk, Nancy Kunjukunju and Peter Koulen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(2), 1865-1886; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15021865 - 27 Jan 2014
Cited by 58 | Viewed by 8499
Abstract
The molecular pathways contributing to visual signal transduction in the retina generate a high energy demand that has functional and structural consequences such as vascularization and high metabolic rates contributing to oxidative stress. Multiple signaling cascades are involved to actively regulate the redox [...] Read more.
The molecular pathways contributing to visual signal transduction in the retina generate a high energy demand that has functional and structural consequences such as vascularization and high metabolic rates contributing to oxidative stress. Multiple signaling cascades are involved to actively regulate the redox state of the retina. Age-related processes increase the oxidative load, resulting in chronically elevated levels of oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species, which in the retina ultimately result in pathologies such as glaucoma or age-related macular degeneration, as well as the neuropathic complications of diabetes in the eye. Specifically, oxidative stress results in deleterious changes to the retina through dysregulation of its intracellular physiology, ultimately leading to neurodegenerative and potentially also vascular dysfunction. Herein we will review the evidence for oxidative stress-induced contributions to each of the three major ocular pathologies, glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. The premise for neuroprotective strategies for these ocular disorders will be discussed in the context of recent clinical and preclinical research pursuing novel therapy development approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
234 KiB  
Review
Neuroprotective Strategies for Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Clinical Translation
by Shruti V. Kabadi and Alan I. Faden
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15(1), 1216-1236; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15011216 - 17 Jan 2014
Cited by 131 | Viewed by 10684
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) induces secondary biochemical changes that contribute to delayed neuroinflammation, neuronal cell death, and neurological dysfunction. Attenuating such secondary injury has provided the conceptual basis for neuroprotective treatments. Despite strong experimental data, more than 30 clinical trials of neuroprotection in [...] Read more.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) induces secondary biochemical changes that contribute to delayed neuroinflammation, neuronal cell death, and neurological dysfunction. Attenuating such secondary injury has provided the conceptual basis for neuroprotective treatments. Despite strong experimental data, more than 30 clinical trials of neuroprotection in TBI patients have failed. In part, these failures likely reflect methodological differences between the clinical and animal studies, as well as inadequate pre-clinical evaluation and/or trial design problems. However, recent changes in experimental approach and advances in clinical trial methodology have raised the potential for successful clinical translation. Here we critically analyze the current limitations and translational opportunities for developing successful neuroprotective therapies for TBI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
365 KiB  
Review
Neuroprotective Effects of Psychotropic Drugs in Huntington’s Disease
by Edward C. Lauterbach
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(11), 22558-22603; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141122558 - 15 Nov 2013
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 11088
Abstract
Psychotropics (antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, antidepressants, anxiolytics, etc.) are commonly prescribed to treat Huntington’s disease (HD). In HD preclinical models, while no psychotropic has convincingly affected huntingtin gene, HD modifying gene, or huntingtin protein expression, psychotropic neuroprotective effects include upregulated huntingtin autophagy (lithium), [...] Read more.
Psychotropics (antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, antidepressants, anxiolytics, etc.) are commonly prescribed to treat Huntington’s disease (HD). In HD preclinical models, while no psychotropic has convincingly affected huntingtin gene, HD modifying gene, or huntingtin protein expression, psychotropic neuroprotective effects include upregulated huntingtin autophagy (lithium), histone acetylation (lithium, valproate, lamotrigine), miR-222 (lithium-plus-valproate), mitochondrial protection (haloperidol, trifluoperazine, imipramine, desipramine, nortriptyline, maprotiline, trazodone, sertraline, venlafaxine, melatonin), neurogenesis (lithium, valproate, fluoxetine, sertraline), and BDNF (lithium, valproate, sertraline) and downregulated AP-1 DNA binding (lithium), p53 (lithium), huntingtin aggregation (antipsychotics, lithium), and apoptosis (trifluoperazine, loxapine, lithium, desipramine, nortriptyline, maprotiline, cyproheptadine, melatonin). In HD live mouse models, delayed disease onset (nortriptyline, melatonin), striatal preservation (haloperidol, tetrabenazine, lithium, sertraline), memory preservation (imipramine, trazodone, fluoxetine, sertraline, venlafaxine), motor improvement (tetrabenazine, lithium, valproate, imipramine, nortriptyline, trazodone, sertraline, venlafaxine), and extended survival (lithium, valproate, sertraline, melatonin) have been documented. Upregulated CREB binding protein (CBP; valproate, dextromethorphan) and downregulated histone deacetylase (HDAC; valproate) await demonstration in HD models. Most preclinical findings await replication and their limitations are reviewed. The most promising findings involve replicated striatal neuroprotection and phenotypic disease modification in transgenic mice for tetrabenazine and for sertraline. Clinical data consist of an uncontrolled lithium case series (n = 3) suggesting non-progression and a primarily negative double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of lamotrigine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)

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677 KiB  
Technical Note
An Exploratory Evaluation of Tyrosine Hydroxylase Inhibition in Planaria as a Model for Parkinsonism
by David Prokai, Thinh Nguyen, Kurt Kamrowski, Ashwin Chandra, Tatjana Talamantes, Lewis R. Baxter and Laszlo Prokai
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(12), 23289-23296; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms141223289 - 26 Nov 2013
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8165
Abstract
Planaria are the simplest organisms with bilateral symmetry and a central nervous system (CNS) with cephalization; therefore, they could be useful as model organisms to investigate mechanistic aspects of parkinsonism and to screen potential therapeutic agents. Taking advantage of the organism’s anti-tropism towards [...] Read more.
Planaria are the simplest organisms with bilateral symmetry and a central nervous system (CNS) with cephalization; therefore, they could be useful as model organisms to investigate mechanistic aspects of parkinsonism and to screen potential therapeutic agents. Taking advantage of the organism’s anti-tropism towards light, we measured a significantly reduced locomotor velocity in planaria after exposure to 3-iodo-L-tyrosine, an inhibitor of tyrosine hydroxylase that is an enzyme catalyzing the first and rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of catecholamines. A simple semi-automatic assay using videotaped experiments and subsequent evaluation by tracking software was also implemented to increase throughput. The dopaminergic regulation of locomotor velocity was confirmed by bromocriptine, a drug whose mechanisms of action to treat Parkinson’s disease is believed to be through the stimulation of nerves that control movement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotective Strategies 2014)
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