Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Applied Sciences applsci	2.9	6.1	2011	15 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Eng eng	3.5	4.1	2020	18.8 Days	CHF 1400	Submit
Hydrology hydrology	3.1	6.0	2014	16.5 Days	CHF 1800	Submit
Journal of Marine Science and Engineering jmse	3.2	5.6	2013	15 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Water water	3.5	6.7	2009	17.7 Days	CHF 2600	Submit

33 pages, 14113 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Predicted Hydro-Morphodynamic Responses of a Selected Compound Meandering–Anabranching Reach of the Tigris River to Proposed River Training Works

by Suray Abdel Hameed Rasheed, Ammar Salman Dawood and Thamer Ahmed Mohammed

Water 2026, 18(11), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18111352 - 2 Jun 2026

Viewed by 495

Abstract

Anabranching, sedimentation, island growth, and bank scouring are key morphological processes occurring in the Tigris River. These processes can disrupt navigation, affect water intake, and compromise the safety of infrastructure near the riverbanks. This study aims to simulate and assess the responses of [...] Read more.

Anabranching, sedimentation, island growth, and bank scouring are key morphological processes occurring in the Tigris River. These processes can disrupt navigation, affect water intake, and compromise the safety of infrastructure near the riverbanks. This study aims to simulate and assess the responses of a 4.75 km meandering–anabranching reach of the Tigris River in Baghdad city center to various alternative groyne dimensions designed to control natural morphological processes, using a depth-averaged hydro-morphodynamic model (Delft3D-FM). Bathymetric and field measurements, including sediment load, velocity, water level, and discharge, were conducted and used for model calibration and validation. The model demonstrated good agreement with observed water levels (Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) = 0.02 m) and depth-averaged velocities (RMSE = 0.068–0.142 m/s), and it reproduced morphological changes with a maximum bed-level error of approximately 13% at control sections. More than 20 groyne configurations, varying in orientation, length (L), and spacing (S), were simulated and assessed. In this study, the selection of the best groyne design for controlling morphological processes in the target reach was carried out using a proposed composite Groyne Performance Index (GPI). The index is based on weighted contributions from flow partitioning, thalweg stability, cross-channel infilling, island-margin response, and corridor deposition. While the straight–groyne configuration with L = 0.25 W (river width) and S = 2 L achieved the highest GPI, the L = 0.25 W and S = 3 L configuration is selected as the preferred design as it provided a more balanced response in terms of flow redirection, thalweg stability, reduced anabranching and deposition, and lower scour risk. The adopted selection methodology demonstrates a valuable indicator-based framework for selecting river-training layouts in low-slope, sand-bed, meandering–anabranching reaches of alluvial rivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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21 pages, 26358 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prestress Loss and Bi-Directional Prestress Effect of a Large-Span U-Shaped Aqueduct: Field Test and Numerical Analysis

by Pingan Liu, Tiehu Wang, Yupeng Ou and Xun Zhang

Eng 2026, 7(5), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng7050239 - 14 May 2026

Viewed by 227

Abstract

Prestress loss and bi-directional prestress effects are critical design parameters that determine the bearing capacity of large-span U-shaped aqueducts. Based on a 42 m span simply supported U-shaped aqueduct, the pipeline friction coefficients were tested through least-squares fitting and validated against a finite [...] Read more.

Prestress loss and bi-directional prestress effects are critical design parameters that determine the bearing capacity of large-span U-shaped aqueducts. Based on a 42 m span simply supported U-shaped aqueduct, the pipeline friction coefficients were tested through least-squares fitting and validated against a finite element analysis model. The results revealed pipeline friction induced 4.82–5.08% longitudinal and 35.84–39.23% circumferential prestress loss, with 12-month post-tensioning monitoring showing 9.84% (longitudinal) and 3.15% (circumferential) long-term loss. Maximum concrete compressive stresses reached 5.83 MPa (inner wall) and 7.14 MPa (outer wall) under empty groove conditions. Six prestress tensioning sequences were numerically compared to identify the optimal “both ends to center” circumferential tensioning scheme. The prestressed tendon layout was optimized by increasing circumferential tendon spacing from 40 cm to 60 cm while maintaining global compression. This research provides a systematic framework for prestress optimization in curved concrete structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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28 pages, 3300 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research and Verification of Predictive Control Algorithm for Open Channel Gates Based on the Integral Time-Delay Model

by Mengfei Liu, Jianwei Zhang, Yiwen Chen, Meng Zhou, Yunxiao Pan, Ye Hong and Yaohua Hu

Water 2026, 18(10), 1154; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18101154 - 11 May 2026

Viewed by 471

Abstract

Under complex disturbances and backwater time-delay conditions, traditional open-channel gate water level control suffers from insufficient accuracy and slow response, readily causing water level overruns, control instability, and engineering safety risks. To overcome the limitations of conventional controllers in responding to rainfall disturbances, [...] Read more.

Under complex disturbances and backwater time-delay conditions, traditional open-channel gate water level control suffers from insufficient accuracy and slow response, readily causing water level overruns, control instability, and engineering safety risks. To overcome the limitations of conventional controllers in responding to rainfall disturbances, this study proposes a Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithm based on the Integrator Delay (ID) model. The approach first integrates an LSTM-KAN (Kolmogorov–Arnold Network) model for accurate rainfall prediction, providing reliable inputs for disturbance feedforward. Subsequently, leveraging the SWMM simulation model and the PySWMM library, ID model parameters (backwater area and lag time) are identified in real time through impulse response testing. A state-space representation is then formulated and incorporated into the MPC rolling optimization framework, enabling precise water level forecasting over the prediction horizon. Simulation results demonstrate that the average computation time for 24-h tests is only 240 s, with markedly reduced water level deviations. Experimental validation confirms superior performance under steady flow conditions (flow fluctuations < 0.007 m³/s; settling time ≈ 210 s) and constant water level control, achieving water level deviations < 0.05 m in known disturbance scenarios. Compared with the conventional Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), the proposed MPC algorithm reduces gate response time by 6.38–19.80% under the tested rainfall conditions. The proposed method establishes a complete closed-loop framework integrating rainfall prediction, water level forecasting, and combined feedforward-feedback control, offering an efficient and practical solution for open-channel gate water level management in smart water conservancy systems. It holds considerable theoretical significance and application value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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20 pages, 6458 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Flow Division at Lateral Diversions

by Firat Gumgum

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 3239; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16073239 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 403

Abstract

This study numerically investigates the flow division at lateral diversions, focusing on the influence of the diversion angle and the ratio of channel widths on flow characteristics and discharge distribution. A total of 68 simulations were performed using FLOW-3D HYDRO 2022R1 software with [...] Read more.

This study numerically investigates the flow division at lateral diversions, focusing on the influence of the diversion angle and the ratio of channel widths on flow characteristics and discharge distribution. A total of 68 simulations were performed using FLOW-3D HYDRO 2022R1 software with a Large Eddy Simulation turbulence model. The investigation covered diversion angles of 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°, combined with width ratios of 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00, under a wide range of upstream and downstream flow parameters. The flow fields were analyzed using cross-sections in both channels; the change in flow depths and velocity fields were evaluated together with organized flow structures. Streamline analyses were performed and three new empirical equations were proposed to predict the width of the divided flow and the discharge distribution in the bifurcation. Finally, the performance of existing equations previously proposed in the literature were assessed against the simulation results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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21 pages, 4517 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deformation Characteristics and Optimization of Waterproof Joints in CFRDs Founded on Deep Overburden

by Boyuan Liu, Feng Wang, Kai Chen, Tailai Wang and Zhuo Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 3012; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16063012 - 20 Mar 2026

Viewed by 306

Abstract

The safety of waterproof joints in concrete-faced rockfill dams (CFRDs) founded on deep overburden was determined during construction, impoundment, and sedimentation periods, employing the flexible FEM-NSBPFEM coupled method. Through eleven numerical scenarios, critical deformation zones are identified, and the effects of upper soil [...] Read more.

The safety of waterproof joints in concrete-faced rockfill dams (CFRDs) founded on deep overburden was determined during construction, impoundment, and sedimentation periods, employing the flexible FEM-NSBPFEM coupled method. Through eleven numerical scenarios, critical deformation zones are identified, and the effects of upper soil loads (upstream weighting and sedimentation) and cutoff wall design plans on the key joint between the connecting plate and the cutoff wall (J1) are systematically evaluated. The principal findings reveal that: (1) Joint deformation is dominated by vertical shear, primarily localized at J1, with the shear deformation at J1 reaching approximately 15 cm when the height of the upper soil load reaches 40 m. (2) Upper soil loads exert a greater influence on J1 shear deformation than hydrostatic pressure. (3) Increasing sedimentation loads cause J1 shear deformation to initially mirror impoundment trends before undergoing a sharp surge, and the effect is exacerbated by higher upstream weighting loads. (4) Shear deformation varies markedly between closed and suspended cutoff walls, whereas variations among different suspended wall designs are smaller. Based on these mechanical insights, two optimization schemes for the impermeable system are proposed, effectively constraining joint shear and opening displacements to within 4 cm. These findings provide critical guidance for the reliability analysis and design optimization of CFRD impermeable systems in deep overburden environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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25 pages, 22828 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Prediction of Surrounding Rock Stability During the Construction Period in the Underground Powerhouse of Kala Hydropower Station

by Huanjie Chen, Tao Luo, Bin Zhang, Jianrong Kang, Shaowei Wang and Shaojun Fu

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 2480; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16052480 - 4 Mar 2026

Viewed by 548

Abstract

Ensuring the stability of the surrounding rock is the primary objective in the construction of an underground powerhouse at a hydropower station. Real-time monitoring, stability assessment, and evolutionary trend prediction of surrounding rock deformation and support structure stress are essential for maintaining rock [...] Read more.

Ensuring the stability of the surrounding rock is the primary objective in the construction of an underground powerhouse at a hydropower station. Real-time monitoring, stability assessment, and evolutionary trend prediction of surrounding rock deformation and support structure stress are essential for maintaining rock mass stability. Using safety monitoring data and numerical simulation, the evolutionary behaviour of surrounding rock deformation and rock bolt stress during construction of the Kala Hydropower Station underground powerhouse was analysed. Surrounding rock stability and its future state were evaluated. Deformation in the first to third layers was mainly controlled by excavation disturbance and local geological conditions. The crown within the influence zone of the F152 fault exhibited the maximum deformation of 14.60 mm, whereas deformation in other areas was relatively small. Surrounding rock deformation in the cavern remained safe. Rock bolt stress showed spatio-temporal consistency with deformation, with maximum values concentrated in fault-cutting areas. The proportion of anchor bolts with stress below 200 MPa was 96.3%, indicating that the overall stress on the rock bolts in the cavern was in a safe state. Numerical simulation results predict that significant deformation during subsequent excavation and support will be concentrated between faults F152 and F75. The maximum surrounding rock deformation may occur in the fifth-layer sidewall affected by the F75 fault. Relatively high rock bolt stress is expected in the fifth to seventh layer sidewalls influenced by the F152 fault. This study identifies potential locations and development characteristics of stability deterioration during subsequent construction, providing guidance for construction design. The results serve as a reference for surrounding rock stability evaluation and prediction in similar underground powerhouse projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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19 pages, 2073 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Hook Angle and Length on Flow Dynamics in Hooked-Head Spur Dikes: A Numerical Study

by Congyi Ning, Lin Li, Yuhao Qian and Yongxin Lu

Water 2026, 18(4), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18040522 - 22 Feb 2026

Viewed by 478

Abstract

Hooked-head spur dikes are a specialized type of spur dike, where their geometry significantly influences flow diversion, sediment transport, and bank protection. This study establishes a three-dimensional numerical model utilizing the renormalization group (RNG) k-ε turbulence closure and the volume of fluid (VOF) [...] Read more.

Hooked-head spur dikes are a specialized type of spur dike, where their geometry significantly influences flow diversion, sediment transport, and bank protection. This study establishes a three-dimensional numerical model utilizing the renormalization group (RNG) k-ε turbulence closure and the volume of fluid (VOF) method to explore the effects of hook angle (90°, 120°, and 150°) and hook-length ratio (L/D = 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4) on the flow structure surrounding a hooked-head spur dike. The study comprises nine simulation cases, and the distributions of mainstream velocity and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) are analyzed. The results demonstrate that a hook angle of 120° yields the greatest increase in the mean dimensionless mainstream velocity (V*), corresponding to enhancements of 4.26% and 9.09% relative to the angles of 90° and 150°, respectively. When the hook angle is fixed at 120°, increasing the hook length enhances the mainstream velocity; specifically, at L/D = 1/2, the mean V* increases by 10.58% and 14.64% compared to at L/D = 1/3 and 1/4, respectively. Meanwhile, the TKE in the downstream recirculation zone decreases as either the hook angle or the hook length increases. At a hook angle of 90°, the mean dimensionless TKE (E*) is 8.80% and 10.65% higher than at 120° and 150°, respectively. For a fixed hook angle of 120°, the mean E* at L/D = 1/2 decreases by 3.46% and 9.35% compared to at L/D = 1/3 and 1/4, respectively. In summary, the appropriate selection of hook angle and hook length can effectively guide flow toward the channel center, increase conveyance capacity, and enhance hydraulic performance for river regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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19 pages, 5065 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Dissipation Rate and Conjugate Depth After Hydraulic Jump for Counterflow Underflow Energy Dissipation in Spillways

by Shiyong Zhao, Huanmin Zhang, Qin Zhao, Gengsheng Nie, Zhengqing Deng and Gang Yu

Water 2026, 18(3), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18030393 - 3 Feb 2026

Viewed by 997

Abstract

To address the energy dissipation requirements of hydraulic engineering projects with medium-low water heads and medium-high unit discharges, counterflow-type underflow energy dissipation can significantly enhance the energy dissipation efficiency through the head-on collision of flows from spillways on both sides. In this study, [...] Read more.

To address the energy dissipation requirements of hydraulic engineering projects with medium-low water heads and medium-high unit discharges, counterflow-type underflow energy dissipation can significantly enhance the energy dissipation efficiency through the head-on collision of flows from spillways on both sides. In this study, the spillway of the Lieshen Reservoir was used as the prototype. Since gravity dominates the flow in spillways, we established a 1:15 physical model based on the Froude similarity criterion, and conducted numerical simulations using the volume of fluid method coupled with the realizable k-ε turbulence model. Furthermore, the hydraulic characteristics of counterflow energy dissipation under different flow rates and stilling basin length conditions were analyzed. The results show that the counterflow energy dissipation rate first increases before decreasing with increasing stilling basin length, and the maximum energy dissipation rate can exceed 85%; however, the change in the stilling basin depth has a small impact on the energy dissipation rate, especially under relatively high flow rates; furthermore, an empirical formula for the conjugate depth after a hydraulic jump suitable for counterflow energy dissipation with Froude number in the range of 2.0 < Fr₁ < 9.7 and stilling basin depth of 0.5–1.5 m is proposed, with the relative error between its predicted and simulated values being less than 6%. Based on the analysis of the water depth outer envelope curve at the outlet section of the stilling basin, it is suggested that the sidewall height be set to 0.6–0.8 times the conjugate depth after the hydraulic jump. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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23 pages, 6053 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Identification of Waves Generated by Ribbon-Type Pontoon Bridge and Their Effect on Its Maximum Draught

by Marcin Dejewski, Tomasz Muszyński, Lucjan Śnieżek and Mirosław Przybysz

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(23), 12846; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312846 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 609

Abstract

The paper presents the model, methodology and results of experimental research focused on identification of the wave form generated during the crossing of 30-ton and 60-ton vehicles on a ribbon-type pontoon bridge and the analysis of its influence on the characteristics of the [...] Read more.

The paper presents the model, methodology and results of experimental research focused on identification of the wave form generated during the crossing of 30-ton and 60-ton vehicles on a ribbon-type pontoon bridge and the analysis of its influence on the characteristics of the maximum draught. A review of the literature revealed that ribbon-type pontoon bridges are subject to significant vertical deflection. This results from the need to generate sufficient buoyant force to balance the weight of crossing vehicles. The area of maximum draught occurs directly beneath the vehicle and moves along with it, generating a front wave—referred to as a bow wave—which propagates along the crossing and alters the local draught of individual pontoons. Due to the fact that pontoon bridges transfer loads through buoyancy force, a key issue in the process of their design is the precise knowledge of the formation of the volume of the droughted part. No information was found in any publication about the influence of the front wave on the draught form of a ribbon-type pontoon bridge. Their authors do not indicate that the analytical or simulation models they use reflect this phenomenon. Equally, the analysis of the methodologies and results of experimental studies in this area did not show that any attempts were made to identify the form of the front wave. The paper presents the results of measurements of vertical displacements of individual pontoon blocks of the crossing and the characteristics of the front wave occurring during the passing of 30- and 60-ton vehicles with speeds ranging from 7.4 to 30 km/h. Based on the obtained data, an attempt was made to identify the phenomenon of undulation of the surface of the water obstacle and its impact on the loads on the bridge structure. The results allow for identifying a significant front wave with a wavelength of 30–50 m, appearing clearly at speeds above 21 km/h. This wave substantially affects the draught measurement—at a speed of 25 km/h, the maximum draught increased by approximately 30%. Statistical analysis confirmed the significance of this effect (p < 0.05), indicating that wave formation must be considered for accurate determination of pontoon block draught. Furthermore, the mass of the vehicle had a strong influence on the wave and draught parameters—the 60-ton vehicle produced wave troughs and draught depths 55–65% greater than those of the 30-ton vehicle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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21 pages, 1526 KB

Open AccessArticle

BIM Lightweight Technology in Water Conservancy Engineering Operation and Maintenance: Improvement of the QEM Algorithm and Construction of the Evaluation System

by Zhengjie Zhan, Zihao Tang, Lihong He and Junzhi Ding

Water 2025, 17(20), 2929; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17202929 - 10 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1264

Abstract

In recent years, with continuous technological advances, BIM technology has gradually expanded from the traditional construction industry into the field of hydraulic engineering. Since BIM models, which span the entire project lifecycle, contain substantial amounts of data and the operation and maintenance phase [...] Read more.

In recent years, with continuous technological advances, BIM technology has gradually expanded from the traditional construction industry into the field of hydraulic engineering. Since BIM models, which span the entire project lifecycle, contain substantial amounts of data and the operation and maintenance phase accounts for the majority of this lifecycle, higher computational demands are imposed. Consequently, the lightweighting of BIM models has become imperative. In this study, an improved Quadric Error Metric (QEM) algorithm was applied to simplify the geometric data of the constructed BIM model. The research investigates whether the lightweight model can reduce the computational requirements during its application in the operation and management of hydraulic engineering, thereby enhancing its general applicability. Furthermore, a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was established to assess the effectiveness of the lightweighting process. The experimental results indicate that the optimized model occupies significantly less memory space. Additionally, model loading time and rendering CPU usage were substantially improved. The lightweight effect was evaluated as excellent based on the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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17 pages, 24048 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Immiscible Counter-Current Flow in Porous Media Using a Modified Dynamic Pore Network Model

by Yunbo Wei, Kouping Chen, Jichun Wu, Yun Yang and Zhi Dou

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(18), 10181; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151810181 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1095

Abstract

Accurately simulating immiscible counter-current flow is crucial for applications from geological

{CO}_{2}

storage to shale gas production, yet it remains a major challenge for conventional pore network models (PNMs), which are unable to handle the numerical instability of opposing flows. To address [...] Read more.

Accurately simulating immiscible counter-current flow is crucial for applications from geological

{CO}_{2}

storage to shale gas production, yet it remains a major challenge for conventional pore network models (PNMs), which are unable to handle the numerical instability of opposing flows. To address this critical gap, we developed a novel dynamic PNM that incorporates a ‘transition state’ algorithm. This method successfully eliminates the spurious meniscus oscillations that hinder traditional models, enabling robust simulation of the complete counter-current process. Using this model, we quantify the profound impact of pore structure on flow efficiency. Our results demonstrate that increasing the pore size distribution uniformity (Weibull shape factor k from 0.5 to 3.0) extends the persistence of continuous air outflow pathways by more than six-fold (from 359 to over 2300 simulation steps). This leads to a quantifiable increase in the initial fluid exchange rate by nearly 10 times (from

10^{- 11}

to

10^{- 10}

m^{3}

/s) and a reduction in final residual air saturation by 53% (from 0.91 to 0.43). This work provides a tool for predicting and optimizing counter-current flow efficiency in subsurface engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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22 pages, 6469 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction-Induced Waterlogging Simulation in Pinglu Canal Using a Coupled SWMM-HEC-RAS Model: Implications for Inland Waterway Engineering

by Jingwen Li, Jiangdong Feng, Qingyang Wang and Yongtao Zhang

Water 2025, 17(16), 2415; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162415 - 15 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Focusing on the Lingshan section of Guangxi’s Pinglu Canal, this study addresses frequent waterlogging during construction under subtropical monsoon rainfall. Human disturbances alter hydrological processes, causing project delays and economic losses. We developed a coupled Storm Water Management Model (SWMM 1D hydrological) and [...] Read more.

Focusing on the Lingshan section of Guangxi’s Pinglu Canal, this study addresses frequent waterlogging during construction under subtropical monsoon rainfall. Human disturbances alter hydrological processes, causing project delays and economic losses. We developed a coupled Storm Water Management Model (SWMM 1D hydrological) and Hydrologic Engineering Center—River Analysis System 2D (HEC-RAS 2D hydrodynamic) model. High-resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle—Light Detection and Ranging (UAV-LiDAR) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) delineated sub-catchments, while the Green-Ampt model quantified soil conductivity decay. Synchronized runoff data drove high-resolution HEC-RAS 2D simulations of waterlogging evolution under design storms (1–100-year return periods) and a real event (10 May 2025). Key results: Water depth exhibits nonlinear growth with return period—slow at low intensities but accelerating beyond 50-year events, particularly at temporary road junctions where embankments impede flow. Additionally, intensive intermittent rainfall causes significant ponding at excavation pit-road intersections, and optimized drainage drastically shortens recession time. The study reveals a “rapid runoff generation–restricted convergence–prolonged ponding” mechanism under construction disturbance, validates the model’s capability for complex scenarios, and provides critical data for real-time waterlogging risk prediction and drainage optimization during the canal’s construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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17 pages, 3791 KB

Open AccessArticle

Loading Response of Segment Lining with Pea-Gravel Grouting Defects for TBM Tunnel in Transition Zones of Surrounding Rocks

by Qixing Che, Changyong Li, Xiangfeng Wang, Zhixiao Zhang, Yintao He and Shunbo Zhao

Eng 2025, 6(7), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6070166 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1166

Abstract

Pea-gravel grouting, which fills the gap between the lining of tunnels and the surrounding rock, is crucial for the structural stability and waterproofing of water delivery TBM tunnels. However, it is prone to defects due to complex construction conditions and geological factors. To [...] Read more.

Pea-gravel grouting, which fills the gap between the lining of tunnels and the surrounding rock, is crucial for the structural stability and waterproofing of water delivery TBM tunnels. However, it is prone to defects due to complex construction conditions and geological factors. To provide practical insights for engineers to evaluate grouting quality and take appropriate remedial action during TBM tunnel construction, this paper assesses four types of pea-gravel grouting defects, including local cavities, less density, rich rock powder and rich cement slurry. Detailed numerical simulation models comprising segment lining, pea-gravel grouting and surrounding rock were built using the 3D finite element method to analyze the displacement and stress of the segments at the transition zone between different classes of surrounding rocks, labeled V–IV, V–III and IV–III. The results indicate that a local cavity defect has the greatest impact on the loading response of segment lining, followed by less density, rich rock powder and rich cement slurry defects. Their impact will weaken with better self-support of the surrounding rocks in the order of V–IV, V–III and IV–III. The tensile stress of segment lining is within the limit of concrete cracking for combinations of all four defects when the surrounding rock is of the class IV–III, and it is within this limit for two-defect combinations when the surrounding rock is of classes V–III and V–IV. When three defects or all four defects are present in the pea-gravel grouting, the possibility of segment concrete cracking increases from the transition zone of class V–III surrounding rock to the transition zone of class V–IV surrounding rock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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31 pages, 9878 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shallow Sliding Failure of Slope Induced by Rainfall in Highly Expansive Soils Based on Model Test

by Shuangping Li, Bin Zhang, Shanxiong Chen, Zuqiang Liu, Junxing Zheng, Min Zhao and Lin Gao

Water 2025, 17(14), 2144; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142144 - 18 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1527

Abstract

Expansive soils, characterized by the presence of surface and subsurface cracks, over-consolidation, and swell-shrink properties, present significant challenges to slope stability in geotechnical engineering. Despite extensive research, preventing geohazards associated with expansive soils remains unresolved. This study investigates shallow sliding failures in slopes [...] Read more.

Expansive soils, characterized by the presence of surface and subsurface cracks, over-consolidation, and swell-shrink properties, present significant challenges to slope stability in geotechnical engineering. Despite extensive research, preventing geohazards associated with expansive soils remains unresolved. This study investigates shallow sliding failures in slopes of highly expansive soils induced by rainfall, using model tests to explore deformation and mechanical behavior under cyclic wetting and drying conditions, focusing on the interaction between soil properties and environmental factors. Model tests were conducted in a wedge-shaped box filled with Nanyang expansive clay from Henan, China, which is classified as high-plasticity clay (CH) according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The soil was compacted in four layers to maintain a 1:2 slope ratio (i.e., 1 vertical to 2 horizontal), which reflects typical expansive soil slope configurations observed in the field. Monitoring devices, including moisture sensors, pressure transducers, and displacement sensors, recorded changes in soil moisture, stress, and deformation. A static treatment phase allowed natural crack development to simulate real-world conditions. Key findings revealed that shear failure propagated along pre-existing cracks and weak structural discontinuities, supporting the progressive failure theory in shallow sliding. Cracks significantly influenced water infiltration, creating localized stress concentrations and deformation. Atmospheric conditions and wet-dry cycles were crucial, as increased moisture content reduced soil suction and weakened the slope’s strength. These results enhance understanding of expansive soil slope failure mechanisms and provide a theoretical foundation for developing improved stabilization techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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29 pages, 4280 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pore Structure and Fractal Characteristics of Coal Rocks Under Variable Moisture Content Increment Cycles Using LF-NMR Techniques

by Hongxin Xie, Yanpeng Zhao, Daoxia Qin, Hui Liu, Yaxin Xing, Zhiguo Cao, Yong Zhang, Liqiang Yu and Zetian Zhang

Water 2025, 17(13), 1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131884 - 25 Jun 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1778

Abstract

The spatiotemporal heterogeneity of moisture distribution causes the coal pillar dams in underground water reservoirs to undergo long-term dry–wet cycles (DWCs) under varying moisture content increments (MCIs). Accurately measuring the pore damage and fractal dimensions (D_f) of coal rock by [...] Read more.

The spatiotemporal heterogeneity of moisture distribution causes the coal pillar dams in underground water reservoirs to undergo long-term dry–wet cycles (DWCs) under varying moisture content increments (MCIs). Accurately measuring the pore damage and fractal dimensions (D_f) of coal rock by different MCIs under DWCs is a prerequisite for in-depth disclosure of the strength deterioration mechanism of underground reservoir coal pillar dams. This study employed low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) to quantitatively characterize the pore structural evolution and fractal dimension with different MCI variations (Δw = 4%, 6%, 8%) after one to five DWCs. The results indicate that increasing MCIs at constant DWC numbers (N_DWC) induces significant increases in pore spectrum area, adsorption pore area, and seepage pore area. MRI visualization demonstrates a progressive migration of NMR signals from sample peripheries to internal regions, reflecting enhanced moisture infiltration with higher MCIs. Total porosity increases monotonically with MCIs across all tested cycles. Permeability, T₂ cutoff (T_2C), and D_f of free pores exhibit distinct response patterns. A porosity-based damage model further reveals that the promoting effect of cycle numbers on pore development and expansion outweighs that of MCIs at N_DWC = 5. This pore-scale analysis provides essential insights into the strength degradation mechanisms of coal pillar dams under hydro-mechanical coupling conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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22 pages, 6482 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Xingjian Zhou, Hangsheng Ma and Yizhe Wu

Water 2025, 17(12), 1752; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121752 - 11 Jun 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1348

Abstract

Landslide-induced impulse waves (LIIWs) are significant natural hazards, frequently occurring in mountain reservoirs, which threaten the safety of waterways and dam project. To predict the impact of impulse waves induced by Rongsong (RS) potential landslide on the dam, during the layered construction period [...] Read more.

Landslide-induced impulse waves (LIIWs) are significant natural hazards, frequently occurring in mountain reservoirs, which threaten the safety of waterways and dam project. To predict the impact of impulse waves induced by Rongsong (RS) potential landslide on the dam, during the layered construction period and maximum water level operation period of Rumei (RM) Dam (unbuilt), a large-scale three-dimensional similar physical model with a similarity scale of 200:1 (prototype length to model length) was established. The experiments set five water levels during the dam’s layered construction period and recorded and analyzed the generation and propagation laws of LIIWs. The findings indicate that, for partially granular submerged landslides, no splashing waves are generated, and the waveform of the first wave remains intact. The amplitude of the first wave exhibits stable attenuation while the third one reaches the largest. After the first three columns of impulse waves, water on the dam surface oscillates between the two banks. This study specifically discusses the impact of different water depths on LIIWs. The results show that the wave height increases as the water depth decreases. Two empirical formulas to calculate the wave attenuation at the generation area and to calculate the maximum vertical run-up height on the dam surface were derived, showing strong agreement between the empirical formulas and experimental values. Based on the model experiment results, the wave height data in front of the RM dam during the construction and operation periods of the RM reservoir were predicted, and engineering suggestions were given for the safety height of the cofferdam during the construction and security measures to prevent LIIW overflow the dam top during the operation periods of the RM dam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Hydraulic Engineering and Modelling)

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