Search Results (513)

Ecosystem services—the benefits humans derive from nature—are foundational to environmental sustainability and economic well-being, with carbon sequestration and storage standing out as critical regulating services in the fight against climate change. This study presents a comprehensive financial valuation of the carbon sequestration, storage and product substitution ecosystem services provided by the Hungarian forest-based sector. Using a multi-scenario framework, four complementary valuation concepts are assessed: total carbon storage (biomass, soil, and harvested wood products), annual net sequestration, emissions avoided through material and energy substitution, and marketable carbon value under voluntary carbon market (VCM) and EU Carbon Removal Certification Framework (CRCF) mechanisms. Data sources include the National Forestry Database, the Hungarian Greenhouse Gas Inventory, and national estimates on substitution effects and soil carbon stocks. The total carbon stock of Hungarian forests is estimated at 1289 million tons of CO₂ eq, corresponding to a theoretical climate liability value of over EUR 64 billion. Annual sequestration is valued at approximately 380 million EUR/year, while avoided emissions contribute an additional 453 million EUR/year in mitigation benefits. A comparative analysis of two mutually exclusive crediting strategies—improved forest management projects (IFMs) avoiding final harvesting versus long-term carbon storage through the use of harvested wood products—reveals that intensified harvesting for durable wood use offers higher revenue potential (up to 90 million EUR/year) than non-harvesting IFM scenarios. These findings highlight the dual role of forests as both carbon sinks and sources of climate-smart materials and call for policy frameworks that integrate substitution benefits and long-term storage opportunities in support of effective climate and bioeconomy strategies. Full article

This paper discusses the possibilities of using stump wood as a raw material for energy generation. The research was based on an analysis of the state of knowledge, forest field studies, and participatory observations. A formula was sought to optimise the procurement cost of stump wood appropriate to Polish conditions. Conceptualisation was carried out in a selected area of the Notecka Forest in the Wielkopolska region, located in western Poland. A pilot study was designed to test a computational formula to assess the profitability of harvesting wood from stump wood resources for energy generation. The potential of stump wood is estimated to be around half a million cubic metres per year from the Notecka Forest area alone. This resource provides an opportunity for business development in both forestry and the renewable energy sources (RESs) sector, despite the barriers and risks shown in this study. Full article

In this study, we comprehensively analyzed material consumption (fuel, hydraulic oil, lubricants, and AdBlue fluid) and estimated carbon dioxide emissions during logging operations. This study was carried out in the northeastern part of Poland. Four harvesters and four forwarders representing two manufacturers (John Deere-Deere & Co., Moline, USA, and Komatsu Forest AB, Umeå, Sweden) were analyzed to compare their operational efficiency and constructional influences on overall operating costs. Due to differences in engine emission standards, approximate greenhouse gas emissions were estimated. The results indicate that harvesters equipped with Stage V engines have lower fuel consumption, while large forwarders use more consumables than small ones per hour and cubic meter of harvested and extracted timber. A strong positive correlation was observed between total machine time and fuel consumption (r = 0.81), as well as between machine time and total volume of timber harvested (r = 0.72). Older and larger machines showed about 40% higher combustion per unit of wood processed. Newer machines meeting higher emission standards (Stage V) generally achieved lower CO₂ and other GHG emissions compared to older models. Machines with Stage V engines emitted about 2.07 kg CO₂ per processing of 1 m³ of wood, while machines with older engine types emitted as much as 4.35 kg CO₂ per 1 m³—roughly half as much. These differences are even more pronounced in the context of nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions: the estimated NO_x emissions for the older engine types were as high as ~85 g per m³, while those for Stage V engines were only about 5 g per m³ of harvested wood. Continuing the study would need to expand the number of machines analyzed, as well as acquire more detailed performance data on individual operators. A tool that could make this possible would be fleet monitoring services offered by the manufacturers of the surveyed harvesters and forwards, such as Smart Forestry or Timber Manager. Full article

Timber and other biobased materials store carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and plant growth. The estimation of these biogenic carbon stocks in the harvested wood products (HWP) pool has received increasing attention since its inclusion in greenhouse gas reporting by the IPCC. It is of particular interest for long service life products such as timber in buildings; however, some aspects require further thought—in particular the handling of service lives as opposed to half-lives. The most commonly used model for calculating changes in the HWP pool uses first order decay based on half-lives. However other approaches are based on average service lives and estimates of residence times in the product pool, enabling different mathematical functions to be used. This paper considers the evolution of the two concepts and draws together data from a wide range of sources to consider service life estimation, which can be either related to design life or practical observations such as local environmental conditions, decay risk or consumer behaviour. As an increasing number of methods emerge for calculating HWP pool dynamics, it is timely to consider how these numerical inputs from disparate sources vary in their assumptions, calculation types, accuracy and results. Two groups are considered: half-lives for first order decay models, and service life and residence time population distributions within models based on other functions. A selection of examples are drawn from the literature to highlight emerging trends and discuss numerical constraints, data availability and areas for further study. The review indicated that issues exist with inconsistent use of nomenclature for half-life, average service life and peak flow from the pool. To ensure better sharing of data between studies, greater clarity in reporting function types used is required. Full article

Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.), an ecologically and economically important tree species has been significantly affected by oak dieback in recent years. Since one of the symptoms of oak dieback is crown defoliation, this research aimed to determine the quantity, quality, average tree value, and wood defects that influence grading in different stages of oak dieback indicated by tree crown defoliation degree. The research was conducted in a 62- and 116-year-old stand of the lowland Croatian forest. In total, 115 pedunculate oak trees were sampled and processed in 983 logs that were analyzed. The prescribed single-entry volume tables underestimate harvesting volume by 5.45% on site A and 6.16% on site B, while the calculation of net harvesting volume underestimates net volume by 0.26% on site A and overestimates net volume on site B by 4.59%. The analysis of wood defect presence showed that insect holes, rot, and covered knots were the main reasons for the degradation of quality class. Dead trees showed a decreased average tree value in DBH classes 32.5–42.5 cm compared to the healthy trees. Based on the findings of this research, tree crown defoliation degree could be used as a timber quality and average tree value indicator. Full article

Selecting the most suitable machines to use for wood recovery is essential for computing the operating costs of the whole forestry machinery chain (FMC). Nevertheless, a generalized approach for selecting the most suitable FMC and quantifying the corresponding economic performances for wood recovery (i.e., harvesting and long-distance transport) is still missing. The primary aim of this study is to describe a decision support model, called FOREstry MAchinery chain selection (“FOREMA v1”), which is able to (i) select the most feasible FMC and (ii) calculate the costs (such as EUR∙h⁻¹; EUR∙t⁻¹ of dry matter, DM) of each operation (OP) comprising the FMC. The model is made up of three different modules (Ms): machinery chain selection (M1), machinery chain organization (M2), and cost calculation (M3). In M1, feasible FMCs are defined according to seven technical parameters that characterize the forest area. For each FMC, FOREMA v1 defines the sequence of OPs and the types of machines that can potentially be used. Once the characteristics of the area in which wood recovery occurs are processed, the user selects the types of machines to use according to the model’s suggestions. In M2 and M3, the user is supported in organizing the FMC (e.g., calculation of the required time, working productivity, and so on) and computing the operating costs. The secondary aim of this study is to discuss a case study focused on chips production for energy generation, providing empirical evidence on how FOREMA v1 works. The proposed model provides a systematic approach for the selection and optimization of the most suitable FMC to adopt for biomass recovery, thus supporting decision-making processes. The results showed that felling had the lowest cost per unit of time (63.7 EUR·h⁻¹) but the highest cost per unit of mass (35.4 EUR·t DM⁻¹) due to its longer working time and lower productivity. Loading and long-distance transport incurred the highest costs both per unit of time (223.5 EUR·h⁻¹) and per unit of mass (29.4 EUR·t DM⁻¹), attributed to the use of medium–small-sized trailers coupled with tractors operating at low speeds, leading to a high number of cycles. For the entire FMC the costs were equal to 147.3 EUR·h⁻¹ and 101.1 EUR·t DM⁻¹. Full article

The land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) sector plays a crucial role in climate change mitigation; therefore, it is included in national and international climate change policies. However, renewable energy and bioeconomy development increase the demand for biomass for energy and material needs and challenge greenhouse gas (GHG) removal in LULUCF. Therefore, this study aims to analyze whether climate change mitigation and bioeconomy goals are compatible from an LULUCF perspective at the EU level. This study mainly covers the 2000–2020 period, looking at decoupling trends and LULUCF removal as well as estimating the substitution effect, which enables a broader view of the LULUCF GHG removal potential. The results reveal that decoupling is taking place at the EU level regarding economic growth and GHG, with a steady increase in renewables. The share of biomass in renewables is increasing at a slower pace, and the reduction in LULUCF GHG removal is proportionally lower compared to the pace of wood being harvested from forest land at the EU level. Still, biomass demand raises the pressure for LULUCF GHG removal, considering the sector itself is highly uncertain. Despite this, some possibilities to align climate and bioeconomy goals could remain, especially if the substitution effect is considered. Based on historical data, the estimated substitution effect is even higher (−367 mill. t CO₂ eq. on average in 2000–2020) than the sector’s removal (−300 mill. t CO₂ eq. on average in 2000–2020) and is dominated by material substitution (61%). Hence, LULUCF contributes to a reduction in GHG in other sectors, but it is still seldom acknowledged and not accounted for. Full article

The Miombo woodlands are declining in both area and value, primarily due to over-harvesting of commonly preferred species. These forests, however, still contain several other species that are potentially of commercial importance. This study aimed to address the need for improved volume and biomass estimates for the sustainable management and utilization of two of the most abundant timber species in Mozambique’s Miombo woodlands: Brachystegia spiciformis (common name: Messassa) and Julbernardia globiflora (common name: red Messassa). Non-linear models were developed to estimate the merchantable wood volume under bark, heartwood volume, and biomass. The volume and biomass models for wood and heartwood volume, which included both diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height as predictor variables, outperformed single-predictor models. However, the performance of some ratio models using DBH as the only predictor variable surpassed that of models using two predictor variables. The developed models are recommended for adoption by forest companies to increase economic and environmental benefits as they can refine harvest planning by improving the selection of trees for harvesting. Proper tree selection enhances the rate of recovery of high-quality timber from heartwood while observing sustainable forest management practices in Miombo and increasing the proportion of carbon removed from forests, which is subsequently stored in wood products outside the forest. Full article

In the years 2022 to 2023, the harvesting of medium-sized round wood by the State Forests Service in Poland was estimated at between 22.2 and 23.6 million solid cubic meters per year. This is a significant amount of timber to be transported by road. It is a challenge for both transport companies and round wood buyers. The high variability of wood density depending on the species in combination with its moisture content is a significant issue in logistics operations. This study focuses on the influence of the absolute moisture content on selected parameters of wood deliveries, taking into account the differences in the seasons. The total weight of a transport set (GVW) and empty set (Tare) and the weight of the load (Net) were determined on the basis of weighing the transports on stationary scales at the recipient. The moisture content of each wood load was determined using the dryer-weigher method for sawdust taken from the cutting of several logs from the delivery. This study analyzed a total of 13,602 transports of ten tree species and two wood assortments of pulpwood (S2a) and industrial wood (S2ap) in four seasons in the years 2020–2022. Pine was the dominant species in 5352 deliveries, and spruce was the dominant species in 3161. In terms of seasons, 3983 transports were recorded in the summer, 3650 were recorded in the spring, and 3492 were recorded in the autumn. The lowest number of 2475 was in winter. The mean volume of delivered wood (from 13,602 transports) was 28.18 m³, with a range of results from 19.00 to 51.29 m³ and SD = 2.40. The mean weight of the shipment was 24.95 Mg, with SD = 3.36. The range was from 13.92 Mg to 38.20 Mg. The mean absolute moisture content (AMC) of all wood loads (regardless of species and quality) was 42.91%. The results varied significantly (SD = 6.41). The minimum value was 15.64%, and the maximum value was 66.79%. The absolute moisture content of round wood is related to the season, species and assortment of transported wood. Loads of hardwood have lower average solid cubic meter values than softwood. Full article

The use of non-wood forest products plays a significant role in sustainable development, especially in the context of regional development. One of the most important and promising raw materials is birch sap, which in European conditions is obtained mainly from silver birch (Betula pendula Roth). Research on the utility value of birch sap and the influence of a number of factors on its efficiency and quality has been carried out in many research centers, but so far, there are not many studies on the variability of such parameters as a function of time, taking into account the entire period of sap leakage. This research was carried out in birch stands of approximately 80 years in three forest site types: mixed coniferous forest, mixed broadleaved forest, and broadleaved forest. In each site, nine sample trees were selected using Hartig’s method. The daily and all-season sap yield obtained from individual trees was statistically characterized. The relationship between birch sap yield and select quantitative (tree height, absolute and relative crown length, and slenderness) and qualitative (forest site type, tree thickness class, and sap harvesting period) variables was examined. For the first time in the literature on the subject, there is a proposal to distinguish the phases of obtaining birch sap, which may bring new knowledge, both in relation to daily productivity and the quality of the sap. As a result, the smallest amount of sap was found in the initial leak phase, a slightly higher amount was found in the final phase, and the largest amount was found in the main phase. Regarding the forest site type and the interaction between the collection phase and forest site type, no statistically significant relationship with the average amount of obtained sap was found. Full article

In forest operations, traditional ergonomic studies have been carried out by assessing body posture manually, but such assessments may suffer in terms of efficiency and reliability. Advancements in machine learning provided the opportunity to overcome many of the limitations of the manual approach. This study evaluated the intra- and inter-reliability of postural assessments in manual and motor-manual forest operations using the Ovako Working Posture Analysing System (OWAS)—which is one of the most used methods in forest operations ergonomics—by considering the predictions of a deep learning model as reference data and the rating inputs of three raters done in two replicates, over 100 images. The results indicated moderate to almost perfect intra-rater agreement (Cohen’s kappa = 0.48–1.00) and slight to substantial agreement (Cohen’s kappa = 0.02–0.64) among human raters. Inter-rater agreement between pairwise human-model datasets ranged from poor to fair (Cohen’s kappa = −0.03–0.34) and from fair to moderate when integrating all the human ratings with those of the model (Fleiss’ kappa = 0.28–0.49). The deep learning (DL) model highly outperformed human raters in assessment speed, requiring just one second per image, which, on average, was 19 to 53 times faster compared to human ratings. These findings highlight the efficiency and potential of integrating DL algorithms into OWAS assessments, offering a rapid and resource-efficient alternative while maintaining comparable reliability. However, challenges remain regarding subjective interpretations of complex postures. Future research should focus on refining algorithm parameters, enhancing human rater training, and expanding annotated datasets to improve alignment between model outputs and human assessments, advancing postural assessments in forest operations. Full article

Many modern technologies rely on materials that harm the environment. Glass manufacturing, for instance, is both expensive and environmentally damaging. In response, scientists have developed a technique to replace glass with transparent wood, an innovative, versatile, and sustainable alternative. Wood naturally retains heat, is durable, and remains cost-effective, making it promising substitute for glass and plastic in window production. This innovation highlights the urgent need for eco-friendly technologies to replace or improve existing materials. This work explores cork as a sustainable alternative for producing transparent materials, potentially replacing transparent wood. Unlike wood, cork can be harvested from the same tree for up to 300 years. The process followed a method like transparent wood production, involving delignification, bleaching, and forced polymer impregnation. The choice of bleaching agent significantly impacted results—samples treated with sodium hypochlorite solution appeared whiter but became extremely fragile, whereas hydrogen peroxide preserved mechanical properties better. The resin-to-hardener ratio was crucial, with higher resin content improving polymer infiltration and transparency. While fully transparent cork was not achieved, the resulting translucent material lays the groundwork for future research in this field. Full article

Integrating different ecosystem services (ES) to determine when to harvest a forest stand is still challenging. This is due to the difficulty of obtaining information, models, and methods to quantify those ES and achieving an adequate valuation of these services. In this study, we propose a methodology comprising two different models that could allow for different ES integration with the optimal silviculture to calculate the optimal economic rotation. We have applied both models to eucalyptus plantations in Brazil considering two ES: wood with four different assortments and carbon sequestration. For both models, we calculated a ranking with previously defined management alternatives, with decreasing trees-per-hectare compared to traditional plantations. For the first model, when the ES are measured in monetary units, the optimal rotation corresponds to fewer trees per hectare than the traditional plantations and greater associated profitability. The second model incorporates the ES in physical units through a multi-criteria decision-making model and results in a longer rotation with again fewer trees per hectare. This study suggests that optimum forest rotation analysis should consider ES other than timber production integrated with silvicultural alternatives, such as spacing. Full article

For jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) and red pine (Pinus resinosa Aiton) forest types, the goal of this study was to develop and demonstrate enhanced climate-smart crop planning models that are capable of simultaneously addressing both conventional and evolving forest management objectives, i.e., volumetric yield, wood quality, carbon storage-based harvestable wood product (HWP) production, and biodiversity-driven deadwood accumulation objectives. Procedurally, this involved the following: (1) development and integration of species-specific cambial age prediction equations and associated integration of whole-stem fibre attribute prediction equation suites, previously developed for wood density (W_d), microfibril angle (M_a), modulus of elasticity (M_e), fibre coarseness (C_o), tracheid wall thickness (W_t), tracheid radial (D_r) and tangential (D_t) diameters, and specific surface area (S_a), into climate-sensitive structural stand density management models (SSDMMs); (2) modification of the computational pathway of the SSDMMs to enable the estimation of abiotic stem volume production; and (3) given (1) and (2), exemplifying the potential utility of the enhanced SSDMMs in operational crop planning. Analytically, to generate whole-stem attribute predictions and derive HWP estimates, species-specific hierarchical mixed-effects cambial age models were specified, parameterized, and statistically validated. The previously developed attribute equation suites along with the new cambial age models were then integrated within the species-specific SSDMMs. In order to facilitate the calculation of accumulated deadwood production arising from density-dependent (self-thinning) and density-independent (non-self-thinning) mortality, the computational pathways of the SSDMMs were augmented and modified. The utility of the resultant enhanced SSDMMs was then exemplified by generating and contrasting rotational volumetric yield, wood quality attribute property maps, quantity and quality (grade) of solid wood and non-solid wood HWPs, and deadwood production forecasts, for species–locale–RCP-specific crop plan sets. These analytical model-based innovations, along with the crop planning exemplifications, confirmed the adaptability and potential utility of the enhanced SSDMMs in mitigating the complexities of multiple criteria decision-making when managing jack pine and red pine forest types under climate change. Full article

The harvesting period is determined by forest maturity. However, there are few studies on the continuity of assessing cultivation duration based on both growth and wood quality, especially for Eucalyptus plantations. This study measures growth traits, such as the diameter at breast height (DBH), oblateness, and other characteristics, as well as wood properties like density and crystallinity, and axial surface growth strain levels at four age stages (6, 10, 22, and 34 years) of Eucalyptus cloeziana (E. cloeziana). By analyzing these factors, particularly the changes in growth strain throughout the tree’s development, the study aims to determine the optimal cultivation period for using E. cloeziana as solid wood. The survey revealed a two-stage pattern in the annual change rate of DBH, tree height, and oblateness: a decrease from 6 to 22 years followed by an increase from 22 to 34 years. In E. cloeziana, heartwood percentage and density rapidly declined during the first 6–10 years, then stabilized between 10 and 34 years. This suggested differential rates of growth and maturation. By analyzing the growth strain, it was observed that the growth strain of E. cloeziana exhibited an initial increase followed by a subsequent decrease with age. It reached its peak at 22 years and then gradually declined. Remarkably, at 34 years, the growth strain was even lower than that of 10-year-old E. cloeziana, measuring only 2148 με. This reduction in growth strain is advantageous for minimizing defects such as brittle core formation, cracking, and warping during harvesting. In practical cultivation aimed at solid wood utilization, harvesting can be conducted between 22 and 34 years based on management strategies to reduce operating costs. However, with close-to-nature management practices and sufficient financial resources, extending the cultivation period to 34 years or beyond may result in superior wood quality. We aim to achieve the sustainable utilization of resources, foster the long-term development of the wood processing and solid wood utilization industries, and guide the entire sector towards the goal of sustainable development. Full article