Search Results (380)

The intensification and continuous evolution of dairy sheep and goat farming have played an essential role in the development and implementation of milking equipment. The increasing demand for time-efficient milking procedures, reduced labour costs, sustained milk production, and optimal mammary health have driven the widespread adoption and optimisation of machine milking technologies. The objectives of this article are (i) the review of milking systems and relevant technological developments in milking equipment and (ii) the evaluation and description of their impact on udder health, as applied on dairy small ruminant farms. Milking systems used on farms depend on the available space and number of animals on the farms. Appropriate settings in milking systems are important for ensuring good milk quality; among them, vacuum level, pulsation rate and ratio are important characteristics that must be monitored regularly. Further, use of appropriate teatcups specific to the animal species to be milked is significant. An important aspect of proper maintenance of the milking system is the cleaning procedure after completion of milking. Points for consideration are quality and temperature of the water used for cleaning, use of detergents and disinfectants, and maintenance schedule and teatcup replacement. Some technological features that are part of milking systems include automatic vacuum shut off, electronic milk recording, electronic identification of animals, automatic flushing of milking clusters and automatic pre-stimulators. Farms will benefit from applying precision technologies, which will use data from tools related to animal genetic background, animal behavioural indicators, environmental conditions and disease-related functions for more holistic and cost-effective farm management. In this context, integration of sensor-based technologies in milking systems will be able to provide real-time information regarding quality of milk produced at individual and farm levels. Moreover, the introduction of automatic system flushing in-between animals during the milking procedure can contribute to breaking chains of potential bacterial transfer and reducing animal infections during milking. Overall, although machine milking has certainly contributed to improved efficiency, milk quality and labour conditions, flaws in system function may adversely affect mammary health. Full article

Background: While traditional pasture-based systems offer sheep natural living conditions and freedom, barn farming provides greater environmental control and protection. The choice of farming system is a crucial factor directly affecting the physical and mental health of the animals. Aim: This study evaluated welfare indicators and parasite prevalence in different sheep management systems, examining the impact of parasitic infections on ewe welfare. Methods: Conducted from November 2025 to April 2026 across 26 farms (13 confined and 13 pasture), the study individually assessed a sample of 1192 ewes aged 2–7 years. Animal-based welfare indicators were assessed using the AWIN protocol for sheep, while parasitic infections were determined from fecal sampling. Results: The results revealed significant differences (p < 0.001) between the systems. Pasture farms showed a higher prevalence of soiled fleece (60.14%), skin lesions, ocular and nasal discharge (6.35%; 31.22%), respiratory issues (16.75%), fecal soiling (16.23%), borderline anemia (16.23%), and excessive itching (16.23%). In contrast, confined systems exhibited higher prevalence of fleece loss (36.00%), hoof overgrowth (20.96%), udder asymmetry (1.44%), and wool pulling (8.32%). Identified parasites included Eimeria spp., gastrointestinal strongyles, Trichuris ovis, Dictyocaulus filarial, Muellerius capillaris, Protostrongylus rufescens, Moniezia spp., Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Fasciola hepatica, Paramphistomum spp., and Giardia intestinalis. Significant correlations (p < 0.001) were found between certain welfare indicators and parasite infections in confined systems, such as between thin body condition score and Eimeria spp., and between fleece quality and fecal soiling with gastrointestinal strongyles, while in pasture systems, thin BCS, nasal discharge, and respiration quality correlated with Muellerius capillaris, borderline anemia with Trichuris ovis and Dictyocaulus filaria, and fecal soiling with Eimeria spp. and Dicrocoelium dendriticum. Conclusions: This data underscores the critical need to improve ewe welfare and implement targeted parasite control strategies in both farming systems. Full article

This study evaluated whether stable first- and last-entry behaviour into the milking parlour is associated with behavioural traits, milk production, udder health, and milk quality in Lacaune dairy ewes. A total of 246 ewes were monitored during lactation, and animals showing highly consistent first- or last-entry behaviour across six observations were selected. The final dataset included 18 first-entry ewes (FG) and 23 last-entry ewes (LG). FG ewes were heavier than LG ewes (62.11 ± 5.25 vs. 56.83 ± 4.94 kg; p = 0.002) and had higher temperament scores, indicating calmer behaviour (4.00 ± 1.08 vs. 2.96 ± 1.26; p = 0.011). In unadjusted comparisons, FG ewes showed higher daily milk yield (1.20 vs. 1.04 kg/day), lactation milk yield (200.31 vs. 147.30 kg), and longer lactation length (167.78 vs. 143.96 days; p < 0.05). After adjustment for body weight, age, parity, and temperament, these differences were no longer significant, suggesting that they mainly reflected animal-level characteristics. Among udder health indicators, electrical conductivity remained lower in FG ewes after adjustment (3.72 ± 0.08 vs. 4.03 ± 0.07 mS/cm; p = 0.012), whereas log₁₀-transformed somatic cell count (LSCC) differed only numerically. FG milk samples also showed fewer udder pathogen-positive results than LG samples (4.6% vs. 16.7%; p = 0.012), although these findings should be interpreted as exploratory sample-level associations. Milk fat and protein percentages did not differ between groups. Fatty acid differences were nominally significant but not after multiple-testing correction. Overall, stable entry behaviour reflected temperament and selected udder health indicators, whereas its relationship with milk production was mainly explained by animal-level characteristics. Full article

Milk flow dynamics during mechanical milking are strongly influenced by species-specific mammary anatomy, milk partitioning between cisternal and alveolar compartments, and milking management. The present study aimed to compare milkability traits across the main dairy species reared in central Italy using a large dataset collected over 20 years. A total of 7315 animals were included: dairy cows (1103), buffaloes (2870), goats (2399), sheep (754), and donkeys (189). Milk flow curves were recorded using a portable Lactocorder^® device. The following traits were analyzed: milk yield (MY), lag time (LT), milk ejection time (MET), total milking time (TMT), peak flow rate (PFR), average flow rate (AFR), plateau phase (PL), bimodal phase (BM), and bimodality incidence (Bimo). Marked interspecific differences emerged. Dairy cows showed the highest MY and PFR, with bimodality occurring in 23.7% of curves. Buffaloes exhibited lower flow rates, prolonged LT, and extended TMT, reflecting their strong dependence on oxytocin-mediated alveolar milk ejection. Sheep demonstrated short milking times and low bimodality (13.5%), consistent with their large cisternal milk fraction. Goats displayed breed-dependent variability, with specialized dairy breeds showing higher PFR and longer TMT. Donkeys produced low milk volumes but exhibited rapid and efficient milk flow, with the lowest incidence of bimodality (7.4%). Overall, milk flow patterns reflected species-specific udder morphology and physiological mechanisms of milk ejection. Although this field-based study faces inherent limitations in environmental and protocol standardization across farms, the resulting long-term dataset remains highly representative. These findings highlight the importance of tailoring milking machine settings and prestimulation protocols to species and breed characteristics to optimize milking efficiency, labor management, and animal welfare. Full article

Subclinical bovine mastitis (SBM) is an inflammatory condition of the udder that remains a major concern for the dairy industry due to its high incidence and the direct and indirect associated costs. Antibiotics are widely used for prophylaxis and therapy in livestock, especially for SBM. However, overuse and misuse have contributed to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), enabling resistant bacteria to enter the food chain and potentially spread to humans. This study aimed to detect antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus and Streptococcus associated with SBM in dairy cows from Pioter, north-central Ecuador. For this, a commercial screening test, morphological and biochemical assays, standard culture techniques, mass spectrometry, and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) were applied. Among 99 isolates, 77 were Staphylococcus and 22 were Streptococcus. Among the identified Staphylococcus isolates, S. aureus was the predominant species (36.4%). Resistance in Staphylococcus exceeded 70% for fosfomycin and was under 30% for the other antibiotics tested. In Streptococcus, S. uberis predominated (54.5%), with resistance primarily to penicillin and tetracycline (>50%). PCR identified mecA, nuc, and lukSF-PV genes in 7.8%, 29.9%, and 6.5% of Staphylococcus isolates, respectively. In Streptococcus, the ermB and blaZ genes were found in 18.2% and 50% of isolates, respectively. These data provide a baseline on SBM-associated AMR in the study area and highlight the need for ongoing surveillance and improved milking practices to mitigate risks to the dairy sector and public health. Full article

Selective dry cow therapy (SDCT) has emerged as a key strategy to reduce antimicrobial use in dairy production while maintaining udder health. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and impact of implementing SDCT in Romanian dairy farms by comparing low-risk cows treated with internal teat sealant only (ITS) at dry-off with low-risk cows treated with intramammary antibiotics at dry-off. A prospective field study was conducted on two commercial dairy herds, including 87 cows classified based on somatic cell count (SCC) and differential SCC (DSCC), and compared with a historical cohort of 37 cows. Udder health parameters, milk yield during the first 100 days in milk (DIM), antimicrobial use, and economic outcomes were evaluated. No significant differences were observed between groups in terms of postpartum intramammary infections, somatic cell score, DSCC, or clinical mastitis incidence. Milk yield during early lactation was also not affected by treatment. The ITS-only strategy resulted in a substantial reduction in antimicrobial use (−88.8% per cow) without significant differences in total economic costs. Farm-related differences highlighted the influence of management conditions on outcomes. These findings indicate that, in low-risk cows, SDCT using ITS alone is a safe and effective alternative to antibiotic treatment and support the feasibility of implementing SDCT under Romanian dairy production conditions as a sustainable strategy to promote the targeted and prudent use of antimicrobials while reducing unnecessary antibiotic exposure in dairy herds. However, given the limited number of herds and animals included, further studies are needed to confirm these promising findings under a broader range of production conditions. Full article

Maintaining udder health and milk quality is important in dairy goat production; however, the interpretation of somatic cell count (SCC) in goats is complicated by physiological and non-infectious factors. This study evaluated the associations among udder and teat morphological traits, SCC, bacteriological status, and udder surface temperature in clinically healthy Saanen dairy goats. Udder conformation was assessed using a linear scoring system in multiparous goats (n = 70). Composite milk samples were collected at three lactation stages for SCC and milk quality analysis, whereas separate half-udder milk samples were used for bacteriological examination. Udder surface temperature was measured using infrared thermography (IRT) at the final sampling time point. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was applied to identify udder and teat traits associated with log-transformed SCC. The results showed considerable variation in udder conformation, with the greatest deviations observed for teat placement. Fore udder attachment, udder cleft, teat length, and teat form were significantly associated with SCC, with stronger attachment, a more distinct udder cleft, shorter teats, and a more cylindrical teat shape being associated with lower SCC. Bacteriological examination detected mastitis-associated bacteria in 45.0% of half-udder samples, mainly coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. and Corynebacterium spp., while the proportion of obligate udder pathogens was highest in the >2,000,000 cells/mL SCC category. Bacteriologically positive udder halves showed slightly higher surface temperatures than bacteriologically negative udder halves (p < 0.05), whereas no significant differences in udder surface temperature were observed among SCC categories. These findings suggest that udder morphology is associated with SCC and may be useful in phenotypic udder health assessment. IRT may provide complementary information on bacteriological status under standardized conditions, but its diagnostic value in dairy goats requires further validation in larger, longitudinal studies. Full article

This study aimed to investigate the morphological characteristics and weight of supramammary lymph nodes (SMLNs) in Holstein dairy cows and to evaluate the effects of age and body weight (BW) on these parameters. A total of 19 cows (aged 2–9 years) culled due to reproductive failure (including repeated insemination failure, confirmed open status, or abortion) were divided into 3 groups: high-age (H, ≥6 years, n = 6), middle-age (M, 3–5 years, n = 6), and low-age (L, 2 years, n = 7). Results demonstrated that the weight of SMLNs generally increased with age, although lower values were observed in the limited number of cows older than 7 years. The length and width of SMLNs observed here were markedly larger than those reported in previous ultrasonographic studies. The H group had significantly heavier left, right, and bilateral SMLNs compared to the L group (p < 0.01). The M group exhibited significantly higher BW than the L group (p < 0.01). Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive association between BW and right SMLN weight in the L group (r = 0.774, p < 0.05), and a strong bilateral concordance in SMLN weight across all cows (r = 0.859, p < 0.001). These preliminary findings suggest that SMLN morphology and weight are associated with age and BW, although larger prospective studies with complete health and lactation records are needed to confirm these relationships. Full article

Generally, ixodid ticks are important ectoparasites of cattle, including those in smallholder production systems in the Eastern Cape Province, where varying environmental conditions influence their distribution and feeding behaviour. This study investigated ecological variation in tick species composition and attachment site preferences in Bos taurus cattle across coastal and inland areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Ticks were collected from cattle of different ages, sexes, breeds, and body condition scores. Sampling was conducted prior to acaricide treatment, and ticks were manually removed from standard predilection sites on each animal. Specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol and later identified morphologically at the Döhne Agricultural Development Institute Laboratory. Data were analysed using generalized linear mixed models with a negative binomial distribution to assess the effects of host and environmental factors on tick burden. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise species composition, while inferential statistics were applied to evaluate differences in infestation levels across host-related and spatial variables. A total of 3250 adult ixodid ticks were collected from cattle. The most prevalent species was Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (39.7%), followed by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (21.0%), Amblyomma hebraeum (17.7%), Hyalomma rufipes (5.8%), Ixodes pilosus (5.8%), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (4.5%), R. appendiculatus (3.0%), and R. simus (2.5%). Tick burdens were significantly higher in the coastal zone (85 ± 7.5) than in semi-arid inland areas (62 ± 5.9). Attachment site analysis showed significantly higher infestation levels (p < 0.05) on the udder/scrotum compared to other body regions. This study provides baseline information on tick species composition and attachment site ecology in cattle, contributing to improved understanding of host–parasite interactions and supporting the development of targeted, region-specific tick control strategies. Full article

Somatic cell count (SCC) in milk is widely used as an indicator of intramammary infections in dairy sheep and is routinely monitored by the dairy industry as a marker of milk quality. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of SCC levels on milk production, composition, colour, coagulation properties, and cheese-making ability in Manchega dairy sheep. A total of 752 individual milk samples were analysed. To normalise SCC distribution, the somatic cell score (SCS) was calculated and samples were classified into SCS classes. Increasing SCS significantly reduced daily milk yield and lactose content, increased milk pH, and decreased lightness (L*). Higher SCS was also associated with impaired coagulation properties, including longer rennet clotting time (RCT) and curd firming rate (k₂₀), as well as reduced curd firmness (A₃₀, A₆₀). Similar effects were observed for modelled coagulation parameters, with delayed RCTeq and reduced kCF and CFp. Regarding cheese-making ability, SCS significantly affected curd humidity and protein recovery, whereas no significant effects were detected for dry curd yield or fat recovery. Overall, elevated somatic cell counts were associated with a reduction in the technological quality of Manchega sheep milk, particularly affecting coagulation behaviour and curd characteristics. These results underline the importance of controlling SCC levels in dairy sheep systems for both udder health monitoring and maintaining milk suitability for cheese-making. Full article

Centuries of cohabitation between the two species of large camelids (dromedary and Bactrian) in Kazakhstan with a long practice of crossbreeding make it necessary to establish a national camel milk breed standard. To obtain data on purebred herds, the present study aimed to (i) describe the morphometric differences between the two species of large camelids based on some body and udder measurements, (ii) describe the composition of the milk (fat, proteins, minerals) of each species and determine the most discriminating parameters, (iii) verify the possible links between milk productivity and body measurements. The analyses, carried out on two “purebred” farms (respectively, 21 Aruana dromedary and 15 Bactrian camel of different parities but all sampled at the 5th month of lactation), made it possible to observe significant difference in the concentration of certain milk components (fat, respectively, 3.59 ± 1.22 vs. 5.27 ± 0.87%, protein: 3.18 ± 0.28 vs. 3.97 ± 0.29%, magnesium: 1357.07 ± 246.2 vs. 929.40 ± 166.8 µg/mL, manganese: 0.10 ± 0.05 vs. 0.03 ± 0.01 µg/mL). The combination of parameters (protein, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn) made it possible to distinguish 97.6% of the animals. It was also possible to establish the lack of correlations between body measurements and milk production, except the link with heart girth (r = 0.529; p = 0.014) in dromedary only. By automatic classification, 3 different morphological types in dromedary camels and two in Bactrian camels, as well as two profiles of dromedary milk and 3 of Bactrian milk were identified. The present study provided preliminary results which should be validated on a larger number of farms with purebred animals in order to establish a national standard of camel milk, a necessary step for developing the market. Full article

Bovine mastitis is a common inflammatory disease that can progress to mammary fibrosis, thereby impairing udder health, milk yield, and milk quality. This study investigated the protective effects of palmatine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in bovine mammary epithelial cells and mammary fibrosis in mice, as well as the underlying mechanisms. In vitro, palmatine markedly reversed LPS-induced EMT by increasing E-cadherin expression and decreasing N-cadherin and α-SMA expression. In vivo, palmatine alleviated inflammatory cell infiltration and collagen deposition in mammary tissue and reduced the expression of TGF-β1, p-Smad2, p-Smad3, p-p65, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. These findings suggest that palmatine alleviates LPS-induced mammary fibrosis, possibly through inhibition of the NF-κB/TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway, and may represent a potential therapeutic strategy for the prevention and treatment of mammary fibrosis. Full article

Background/Objectives: Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) intramammary infection remains a major global dairy problem due to its contagious nature, its ability to persist and colonize teat/skin and mucosal niches, and the often-limited bacteriological cure achieved with antimicrobial therapy. Beyond udder health, it is relevant to public health because it can enter raw milk chains and serve as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance determinants that may circulate between dairy animals and humans. Methods: We assessed S. aureus’ ecology in raw ewe milk from 75 sheep farms in Epirus (Greece) by sampling clinically healthy controls (group A) and clinical mastitis cases pre-treatment (group B), followed by resampling at the first post-withdrawal milking after penicillin/streptomycin treatment (group C1—therapeutic protocol 1), oxytetracycline treatment (group C2—therapeutic protocol 2), or enrofloxacin treatment (group C3—therapeutic protocol 3). Results: S. aureus detection was high and comparable across groups (A 23.0%, B 22.0–30.0%, C 20.0–22.0%), and paired analyses showed no significant pre–post shifts in detection/burden within therapeutic protocols (all p > 0.05). Nevertheless, persistence remained evident. The chromosomal gene mecA was detected in S. aureus strains in all groups, ranging from 13.6% in controls to 54.5% post-withdrawal in group C1, and was also present in the pre-treatment group. In paired sampling animals, mecA was mostly stable, with rare emergence or loss. Across antibiotic classes, within-animal resistance transitions were generally uncommon and non-significant (p > 0.05); β-lactam resistance was fully stable (p = 1.00). Descriptively, resistance to protein synthesis inhibitors tended to decline after therapy in protocol 1 and protocol 3, while protocol 3 showed post-treatment gains in fluoroquinolone resistance. By contrast, virulence-associated phenotype traits shifted after therapy: enterotoxigenicity increased post-withdrawal (especially in the C3 group), Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A (SEA) and Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) appeared only post-therapy, Staphylococcal Enterotoxin D (SED) increased significantly in paired isolates (p = 0.002), and strong biofilm adherence increased (in C3, p = 1.5 × 10⁻⁵). Conclusions: The detection of S. aureus after therapy suggests that one possibility is that antimicrobial exposure may select for, or otherwise reshape, the residual intramammary population, rather than reliably eliminating it—an outcome that remains clinically relevant for udder health. Moreover, the persistence of mecA/methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)-compatible profiles indicates that milk released to the food chain after withdrawal compliance may still harbor S. aureus with enhanced preservation capacity and significant food safety relevance. Full article

The dry period is a critical window of susceptibility to intramammary infection in dairy cows, yet the metabolic environment of the mammary gland during this phase remains largely uncharacterized. The objective of this study was to profile the metabolome of bovine dry secretion fluid from quarters with subclinical mastitis (SCM; SCC ≥ 200,000 cells/mL) and healthy quarters (H; SCC < 200,000 cells/mL) on day 2 (D2) and day 21 (D21) of the dry period (n = 10 per group quarters per group, drawn from a cohort of 41 enrolled Holstein dairy cows) using high-performance chemical isotope labeling liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (CIL-LC–MS). A total of 474 metabolites were positively identified. At D2, 186 metabolites differed significantly between SCM and H quarters, with dipeptides dominating the upregulated metabolites, indicating active proteolysis in infected quarters. Norepinephrine was the most significantly depleted metabolite (FC = 0.27, p = 3.37 × 10⁻⁷), pointing to local catecholamine exhaustion. By D21, only 36 metabolites remained altered, representing an 80.6% attenuation of the SCM signature. Interestingly, temporal changes from D2 to D21 far exceeded disease-related differences, with 316 metabolites shifting in both SCM and healthy quarters, establishing mammary involution as the dominant metabolic event during the dry period. Principal component and PLS-DA analyses confirmed that time, not disease status, was the primary driver of metabolic variation. Pathway analysis revealed significant perturbations in amino acid metabolism, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, and tryptophan metabolism. These findings provide the first comprehensive metabolomic map of bovine dry secretion, reveal that subclinical mastitis superimposes a proteolytic and neuroimmune disruption onto the involution process, and identify candidate biomarkers for early detection of intramammary infection during the dry period. Full article

A cross-sectional study was carried out on small-scale dairy farms in Paraíba State, Brazil, to evaluate the prevalence and anatomical distribution of integument injuries in grazing dairy cows. Twelve herds (n = 12) were assessed, recording herd size, milk yield, and daily hours of pasture access. The integument of five body regions (back/shoulder/neck, carpus, flank/side/udder, tarsus, and hindquarters) was scored for hairless spots, lesions, and swellings (0 = absent; 1 = present). Among 335 cows observed, 267 (81.5%) presented at least one injury. The most frequent conditions were hairless patches on the hock (65.4 ± 5.03%), lesions on the flank/side/udder (34.5 ± 1.46%), and swelling in the back/shoulder/neck region (52.9 ± 5.86%). Cluster analysis revealed distinct patterns of integument injuries among cows. The high prevalence of integument injuries indicates that even in grazing systems, welfare concerns persist. Neck swelling and hairless spots on the hock were the most common problems, emphasizing the need for improved management and environmental practices to enhance welfare outcomes. These findings have practical implications for welfare assessment and management strategies in tropical grazing dairy systems. Full article