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Marine target classification is a key technology for unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) to perform ocean surveillance. Traditional maritime target classification methods require improvements in both accuracy and processing speed when handling classification tasks. In this paper, a distributed maritime target classification (DMTC) method based on broad learning and MobilityFirst is proposed. Firstly, a multi-model collaborative classification and fusion framework is proposed to achieve feature consistency fusion. Secondly, to enhance the security and privacy of communication in autonomous surface vehicles, the MobilityFirst approach is employed to improve information complementarity among multiple models within the distributed framework. Finally, the broad learning system, as the model’s classification layer, reduces the training complexity. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that this proposed approach surpasses single-model and distributed methods in accuracy, F1 score, and the area under the precision–recall curve (AUPR). This approach offers a clear advantage in multi-ship classification tasks while simultaneously enhancing the model’s generalization capability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unmanned Marine Vehicles: Perception, Planning, Control and Swarm—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 5846 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incidence and Pathogenicity of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia enterocolitica in a Large Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta) Colony (2000–2024)

by Sheena Haney, Anne D. Lewis and Hilary Ann Lakin

Microorganisms 2026, 14(3), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14030596 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Comprehensive epidemiological reports on the incidence and pathogenicity of Yersinia spp., specifically Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia enterocolitica, in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are not prevalent. Here we report findings from a retrospective analysis of microbial culture results, necropsy reports, and histology records collected over 24 years (2000–2024) in a large captive rhesus macaque colony at the Oregon National Primate Research Center (ONPRC). Findings are compared between animals infected with either Y. pseudotuberculosis or Y. enterocolitica to evaluate the prevalence of infection within the population and determine whether Y. pseudotuberculosis is more likely to be associated with systemic disease and higher mortality than Y. enterocolitica. Among 101 affected animals, Y. pseudotuberculosis was the predominant species (75.2%), followed by Y. enterocolitica (22.7%) and Y. kristensenii (2.0%). Overall mortality among animals with confirmed yersiniosis was 25.3%, with comparable mortality rates for Y. pseudotuberculosis (23.7%) and Y. enterocolitica (30.4%) infections. Y. pseudotuberculosis was most frequently associated with systemic illness, spontaneous death, or significant clinical decline. Overall, these findings emphasize the importance of continued surveillance and targeted management strategies to mitigate the impact of Yersinia infections in captive nonhuman primate colonies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical Microbiology)

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14 pages, 4273 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Senolytic Drug Navitoclax Protects the Brain After Experimental Ischemic Stroke

by Dianoush Falahatgaroshibi, Júlia Baixauli-Martín, María C. Burguete, Mikahela A. López-Morales, Alicia Aliena-Valero, José E. Peris and Juan B. Salom

Pharmaceuticals 2026, 19(3), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/ph19030431 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Senescence has been recently described in brain cells following ischemic stroke. The potential of targeting senescence as an effective therapeutic approach in the treatment of ischemic stroke requires further investigation. This study evaluated the effects of the senolytic drug navitoclax after experimental ischemic stroke. Methods: Navitoclax was injected into male young Wistar rats at doses of 10 and 30 mg/kg (i.p.). to evaluate its pharmacokinetics, cerebral levels and potential to cause thrombocytopenia. Subsequently, a second group of rats underwent 60 min of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO). Navitoclax (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle was injected every other day between days 3 and 13 after tMCAO. Neurofunctional performance, infarct size, and senescence markers were assessed on day 14. Results: Navitoclax (10 mg/kg) administration resulted in a maximum plasma concentration of 0.702 mg/L and half-life of 11.33 h. Additionally, a brain concentration of 0.04 ± 0.02 µg/g was detected. Moderate thrombocytopenia was induced by 10 mg/kg, and to a greater extent by 30 mg/kg. Navitoclax (6 × 10 mg/kg) improved neurofunctional impairment, as indicated by significant decrease by 66% in the total time for the tape removal test, and significantly reduced infarct area by 52% when compared to vehicle. Moreover, navitoclax significantly reduced levels of SA-β-gal (by 80%), lipofuscin (by 91%), and Checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2; by 69%) in the ischemic hemisphere. Conclusions: Navitoclax protects the brain after ischemic stroke by improving neurofunctional outcome and reducing infarct size, which is associated with reducing senescence markers. Although moderate thrombocytopenia warrants caution, targeting senescence emerges as a promising therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ischemic Stroke: Current and Emerging Treatment Strategies)

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24 pages, 2003 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Memory Approach for Random Number Generators in FPGA

by Thiago Campos Acácio Paschoalin, Tiago Motta Quirino and Luciano Manhães de Andrade Filho

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 2537; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16052537 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Random number generation is essential in many application domains, including high-energy physics simulations. Implementing Monte Carlo methods that generate samples following a desired probability distribution is particularly challenging on hardware platforms such as FPGAs. Direct implementations of analytical distribution functions are often resource-intensive, making them impractical for real-time systems. An efficient alternative is the use of the inverse cumulative distribution function (CDF), which can be implemented using look-up tables (LUTs). In this approach, a uniformly distributed random number—generated by Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs)—is used as an address to access LUTs containing discretized x-axis values of the CDF, thereby yielding the target random variable. However, this method presents limited accuracy in low-probability regions of the distribution. To address this issue, this paper proposes a segmented CDF implementation based on multiple LUTs, improving resolution in poorly sampled regions. A cascade of decision logic selects the appropriate memory output, increasing resolution only where necessary while optimizing memory usage. The proposed method was validated through Monte Carlo simulations in particle physics applications, achieving close agreement with theoretical distributions while requiring limited FPGA resources and no DSP blocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Signal Processing and Computational Intelligence in High-Energy Calorimeter Systems)

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13 pages, 2949 KB

Open AccessArticle

Awareness, Understanding, and Use of Nutrition Labels on Pre-Packaged Foods and Their Associations with Noncommunicable Diseases Among Adults in Shanghai, China

by Wei Zhou, Jingyi Si, Yifan Gao, Weiwei Zheng, Ruifen Li, Changfeng Zhu, Xue Han, Jiajie Zang and Zhengyuan Wang

Nutrients 2026, 18(5), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18050854 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Background: Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are a major global public health challenge and can be prevented and managed through a balanced, nutrient-rich diet. Food nutrition labels play an important role in guiding healthier choices, particularly for individuals at risk of chronic health conditions. This study assessed awareness, understanding and use of nutrition labels among adults in Shanghai, China, and explored their associations with NCDs. Methods: A face-to-face structured questionnaire survey was conducted among 1503 adults in 2024. Data were collected on sociodemographic characteristics, self-reported chronic conditions (obesity, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (CCVDs), and fatty liver disease), and awareness, understanding, and use of nutrition labels. Generalized linear regression models were applied to assess associations between label-related behaviors and chronic conditions. Results: Overall, 81.6% of participants were aware of labels, 15.0% reported understanding them, and 35.5% reported using them. Participants who were underweight or obese were less likely to be aware of labels compared to those with normal weight (73.8% and 72.9% vs. 83.5%). Individuals with fatty liver disease were less likely to understand labels compared to those without the condition (7.2% vs. 16.1%). Conversely, participants with three or more chronic conditions were more likely to use labels than those without any chronic conditions (46.1% vs. 34.4%). Conclusions: Among adults in Shanghai, nutrition label awareness was relatively high, while understanding and use of labels remained insufficient. Targeted nutrition education and the integration of nutrition labeling into chronic disease management strategies are needed to improve public health outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging and Nutrition Labelling for Human Health)

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31 pages, 2206 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coordinated Allocation of Multi-Type DERs and EVCSs in Distribution Networks Using a Multi-Stage GSA Framework

by Arindam Roy and Vimlesh Verma

Mathematics 2026, 14(5), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/math14050894 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study introduces a multi-stage, multi-objective optimization framework based on the Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA) for determining the optimal sizing and placement of distributed energy resources (DERs) and associated infrastructure. The proposed approach considers solar distributed generation (DG) units with battery storage systems (BSSs), wind DGs, shunt capacitors (SCs) and electric vehicle charging stations (EVCSs). With the rapid adoption of electric vehicles as part of global decarbonization efforts, integrating EVCSs into already stressed distribution networks poses significant operational challenges, often requiring system reinforcement supported by renewable-based DGs. The uncoordinated deployment of EVCSs and DGs can exacerbate power losses and deteriorate voltage profiles. To address these issues, the first stage of the methodology employs GSA to optimally allocate solar DGs with BSSs, wind DGs and SCs, targeting objectives such as minimizing power losses, enhancing voltage stability and alleviating substation loading. The second stage identifies optimal locations and maximum feasible capacities for EVCS integration. Finally, the third stage upgrades the network to mitigate the impacts of EVCS integration. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is validated through simulations on a practical 52-bus, 11 kV distribution network under hourly varying load, solar irradiance and wind velocity conditions for all seasons. The simulation results show an 85% reduction in power losses during peak hours, with nodal voltages maintained above 0.95 p.u. under all scenarios. Additionally, net-zero grid power exchange during peak periods confirms the full islanded operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Optimization Theory and Applications)

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14 pages, 6196 KB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Recombinant Type I Interferon Antiviral Activity Against Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus In Vitro and In Vivo

by Luyu Du, Ruili Zhang, Shuyang Wang, Shanshan Han, Shuyu Zhang, Fanliang Meng, Zheng Fang, Xinyuan Wang, Rui Zhao, Ronglian Dai, Liting Qin, Chuang Lyu and Gang Wang

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(3), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13030249 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a coronavirus responsible for severe watery diarrhea in neonatal piglets, leads to significant economic losses globally. Effective prevention and treatment of PEDV infection is critical to the swine industry. Currently, there are no available therapeutic drugs for PEDV. Porcine interferons (poIFNs) have been identified as promising molecules against a series of swine viruses due to their broad-spectrum antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. In this study, we demonstrated that type I interferon-α (IFN-α) offered both prophylactic and therapeutic benefits against PEDV infection. Recombinant poIFN-α produced by a prokaryotic expression system was purified through affinity chromatography, and its prophylactic and therapeutic effects against PEDV infection were evaluated in vitro and in vivo through RT-qPCR, clinical symptom monitoring, and pathological examination. In vitro studies revealed a strong antiviral activity of poIFN-α against PEDV in Vero E6 cells, with a more pronounced prophylactic effect compared to therapeutic outcomes. In vivo studies showed that poIFN-α significantly alleviated clinical diarrhea in PEDV-infected piglets and reduced intestinal viral loads. These findings suggest that poIFN-α holds considerable promise as an antiviral agent for PEDV and provides a foundation for the development of therapeutic strategies targeting this virus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porcine Health Management: Virus Infection and Epidemic Disease)

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25 pages, 2061 KB

Open AccessReview

Mitochondrial Dynamics in Diabetic Kidney Disease: Underlying Mechanisms and Novel Therapeutics

by Nan Shao, Jinghan Wang, Jiaoying Liu, Junhua Zhang, Bin Zhang, Xiaobo Sun and Xiaoqiu Liu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(5), 2429; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27052429 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a prevalent and serious complication of diabetes and a leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). As the central organelles for cellular energy metabolism, mitochondria play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of DKD. Structural and functional impairments of mitochondria trigger multiple renal pathological processes, such as oxidative stress, apoptosis, chronic inflammation, and fibrosis. Mitochondrial dynamics are crucial for maintaining mitochondrial integrity, and their involvement in the progression of DKD is increasingly recognized. Nevertheless, comprehensive reviews addressing the relationship between mitochondrial dynamic homeostasis and DKD are still lacking. This review systematically summarizes the pivotal role of imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics in the pathogenesis and progression of DKD. It details the underlying regulatory mechanisms and stage-specific pathological contributions across different renal cell types, discusses potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications, and evaluates the prospects of natural products that target mitochondrial dynamics in DKD. By integrating current evidence, this work aims to provide a theoretical foundation and strategic guidance for innovative drug development and precision medicine in DKD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Endocrinology and Metabolism)

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21 pages, 640 KB

Open AccessArticle

Archetypes of Family Health Climates for Nutrition and Physical Activity Among Families in Singapore: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Dhiya Mahirah, Yi-Ching Lynn Ho, Zi Hsuan Chia, Mary Su-Lynn Chew, Xuan Han Koh, Jin-Jin Lim, Julian Thumboo and Kinjal Doshi

Healthcare 2026, 14(5), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare14050669 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Background: Poor lifestyle choices contribute significantly to non-communicable chronic diseases. Given the family’s influence on health behaviours, this study aimed to identify distinct family archetypes based on family health climates for physical activity and nutrition to inform targeted family-based health promotion strategies. Methods: Two hundred family dyads (≥15 years old, cohabiting) in Singapore completed a survey assessing family health climates (physical activity and nutrition), together with individual behaviours, and family lifestyle behaviours. Based on family health climate scores, K-means clustering identified family archetypes. Random Forest analysis determined key contributing constructs to the clusters. Chi-square and ANOVA tests compared socio-demographics, family and individual behaviours, and sleep quality across archetypes. Results: Four family health climate archetypes were identified: Survivors (16%) had poor health climate scores for both physical activity and nutrition, lower socioeconomic status, infrequent family meals, and poorer diet and sleep quality. Nourished Sedentary (16%) had a poor climate for physical activity but a positive climate for nutrition, higher socioeconomic status, frequent family meals, and limited physical activity. Satisficers (41%) had moderate health climates for both, with average socioeconomic status and engagement in healthy behaviours. Flourishers (27%) had positive health climates for both higher socioeconomic status, frequent family meals, healthy food choices, and greater physical activity engagement. Conclusions: The identification of four distinct family health climate archetypes demonstrates that health-related behaviours cluster at the family level rather than solely at the individual level. These findings underscore the importance of targeting family systems in health promotion and support the development of tailored, family-specific strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Family and Community Health Through Salutogenic Approach)

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14 pages, 1822 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tubular Epithelia-Specific Deletion of MCP-1 Does Not Afford Protection Against Adriamycin-Induced Kidney Injury

by Corry D. Bondi, Hannah L. Hartman, Josie L. Gilbert, Joy A. Stewart, Dennis R. Clayton and Roderick J. Tan

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(5), 2432; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27052432 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

The increasing global burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) magnifies an urgent need to find treatable targets. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) is a chemokine secreted by kidney tubular epithelia in response to a variety of stimuli. To better understand the effects of tubular MCP-1 in response to kidney injury, we generated tubular epithelia-specific MCP-1 knockout mice (KO; Pax8-Mcp-1^fl/fl). We then exposed these mice and their control littermates to Adriamycin (Adr; 18 mg/kg, IV bolus). Thirty-two days after Adr injection, Mcp-1 transcript and protein levels were suppressed in the KO mice compared to their wild-type (WT) littermates. The KO mice exhibited no effect on survival, change in body weight, albuminuria, kidney function, glomerular or tubular injury, or tubulointerstitial fibrosis compared to WT. Overall, the results suggest that tubule-secreted MCP-1 is not necessary for progression of Adr-induced injury. These findings contribute to our understanding of the role of MCP-1 in kidney injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition, Inflammation, and Chronic Kidney Disease)

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10 pages, 1135 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Anthony Yihong Cheng, Yuanyuan Liu, Faith Miaomiao Zheng, Ivy Guofang Sun, Jieyi Chen and Chun Hung Chu

Dent. J. 2026, 14(3), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/dj14030149 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to characterize the age-related trends of caries experience among preschool children in Shenzhen, China. Methods: This cross-sectional study recruited 3- to 5-year-old preschool children in Shenzhen via a multistage random sampling method in 2024. Two calibrated examiners conducted oral examinations in kindergartens using disposable dental mirrors with LED illumination and ball-ended Community Periodontal Index probes. Caries experience was recorded using the dmft index, as recommended by the World Health Organization. Results: This study invited 4015 children from 27 selected kindergartens, and 3534 children (1886 boys, 53%) completed the survey. The response rate was 88%. The prevalence of caries experience was 31% at age 3, 49% at age 4, and 58% at age 5, representing a 27% higher prevalence in 5-year-olds than in 3-year-olds. The mean dmft scores (±SD) were 1.2 ± 2.5 for 3-year-olds, 2.2 ± 3.2 for 4-year-olds, and 2.8 ± 3.5 for 5-year-olds, indicating a 1.6 affected teeth higher mean dmft in 5-year-olds than in 3-year-olds. The upper central incisors were the most affected teeth (23%) in 3-year-olds and remained the most susceptible across all age groups, while the prevalence of caries in lower molars increased progressively from 7% at age 3 to 24% at age 5. Conclusions: Dental caries prevalence and severity among preschool children in Shenzhen increase significantly with age. These findings highlight the need for targeted preventive strategies focusing on high-risk teeth, including the upper central incisors and lower molars, to address the rising burden of early childhood caries in this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Preventive Dentistry and Public Health)

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29 pages, 4758 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Tumor-Agnostic, Topology-Informed Scoring Framework for Drug Repurposing: Application to CDK4/6 Inhibitor Resistance in HR⁺ Breast Cancer

by Keyang Qian, Zijie Cai, Ruiquan Liu, Wang Yang, Jiayi Liu, Mengzi Wu, Mengdi Zhu, Linghan Wang, Huipei Gan, Zhuangqiu Yang, Xiaoting Jiang, Cailu Shen, Yong Mao and Qiang Liu

Biomedicines 2026, 14(3), 592; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines14030592 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Background: Therapeutic resistance to CDK4/6 inhibitors (CDK4/6i) remains a critical barrier in HR⁺ breast cancer. While network-based approaches offer a route to identify salvage therapies, existing methods often rely on inconsistent centrality metrics or retrospective public transcriptomes, lacking a unified framework to translate topology into pharmacological actionability. Methods: We developed the Topology-Integrated Hubness Score (TIHS), a quantitative framework that integrates five orthogonal network metrics into a unified hubness vector. To rigorously validate this framework and overcome the limitations of public bulk datasets, we combined cross-cohort statistical benchmarking with original RNA-sequencing data generated from a laboratory-derived palbociclib-resistant model (MCF7-PR). TIHS was applied to prioritize repurposing candidates by overlaying network hubness with drug–target affinity profiles. Results: Methodologically, TIHS demonstrated robust cross-dataset stability (cosine similarity ≥ 0.98) and statistically outperformed single-metric approaches in predicting drug sensitivity. In application, the framework identified sorafenib as a top-ranked candidate for reversing CDK4/6i resistance. Experimental validation confirmed these predictions: sorafenib significantly resensitized resistant cells (IC₅₀ reduction from 6.57 μM to 1.15 μM), and molecular dynamics simulations supported stable binding to the TIHS-prioritized hub, FGFR3. Furthermore, functional assays involving siRNA-mediated knockdown validated that FGFR3 is mechanistically required for the sorafenib resensitization phenotype. Conclusions: This study presents TIHS as a mechanism-agnostic, experimentally validated bridge between resistance-state transcriptomes and clinical decision-making. By coupling computational prioritization with in vitro functional verification, we demonstrate that targeting topology-defined hubs is a viable strategy for overcoming therapy resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Cancer Biology and Oncology)

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22 pages, 3339 KB

Open AccessArticle

Particle Velocity Measurement in Battery Thermal Runaway Jets Using an Enhanced Deep Learning and Adaptive Matching Framework

by Xinhua Mao, Zhimin Chen, Mengqi Zhang, Jinwei Sun and Chengshan Xu

Batteries 2026, 12(3), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12030090 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

High-speed solid particles ejected during battery thermal runaway pose severe safety threats, yet their velocity measurement is hindered by high density, microscopic size, and intense glare. This study proposes a non-intrusive velocimetry framework that integrates an enhanced single-stage object detector with a structural similarity matching algorithm. The detector incorporates specialized feature extraction modules and a high-resolution layer to identify microscopic targets in extreme environments, while the matching algorithm employs adaptive direction constraints to ensure precise trajectory tracking. Experimental validation demonstrates that the framework achieves a mean average precision of 92.7% and supports real-time processing. The method successfully quantifies a three-stage velocity evolution in battery failure events, identifying a peak particle speed exceeding 120 m/s. These findings provide critical kinematic data for optimizing battery safety structures and modeling fire propagation mechanisms. Full article

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27 pages, 6841 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Urban Morphology on Solar Potential: A Detailed Assessment of the City of Milan in Italy

by Fabrizio Leonforte, Rajendra S. Adhikari, Niccolò Aste, Claudio Del Pero, Harold Enrique Huerto-Cardenas, Zhiyuan Xin and Ioanna Bazaki

Energies 2026, 19(5), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19051332 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

Solar energy plays a fundamental role in achieving decarbonization in the construction sector, and therefore, a detailed assessment of solar potential at the urban scale is a key tool in supporting this process. Within this framework, the present study focuses on the high-resolution evaluation of photovoltaic (PV) potential in urban environments, specifically targeting the city of Milan, Italy, where two representative study areas are selected. In detail, 3D city models are developed using Rhino3D 7 software, and a solar radiation analysis was performed using Ladybug components. The solar radiation received by the surfaces that comprise the roofs and facades of buildings is estimated for each floor and orientation, taking into account local climate conditions and shadows cast by surrounding buildings. To define the economic viability of PV system deployment, two threshold criteria were introduced: one concerning the size (area) of the PV system and the other the minimum annual solar radiation level that each surface receives. Based on the obtained data, it is found that approximately 28% of roof surfaces and 5% of facades meet these cost-effective thresholds for PV integration. Further analysis indicates that the balcony self-shading can be considered negligible in the high-density urban context analyzed. The results are beneficial for urban energy management, considering energy savings and investment approaches, and the possibility to transform existing buildings into zero-carbon buildings powered by renewables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section J1: Heat and Mass Transfer)

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20 pages, 1975 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Varying Enzymatic Pretreatment Durations of Wheat Gluten on the Flavour Characteristics of High-Moisture Plant-Based Extrudates

by Xiaodong Li, Huihui Dai, Boning Mao, Hongzhou An, Yanhong Bai and Lovedeep Kaur

Foods 2026, 15(5), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15050912 (registering DOI) - 6 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study examined the effects of varying enzymatic pretreatment durations (0–80 min) of wheat gluten on flavour characteristics of high-moisture plant-based extrudates (HMPEs). Through a comprehensive analysis involving sensory evaluation, electronic tongue, free amino acid (FAA) profiling, electronic nose, and headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (HS-SPME-GC-MS) analysis of volatile odour compounds, it was found that HMPEs with moderate enzymatic pretreatment (40 min) achieved the highest overall sensory score. Electronic tongue and FAA results confirmed a significant enhancement in umami and sweetness, while electronic nose effectively discriminated differences in odour profiles. Extending pretreatment durations gradually reduced beany off-flavours substances (hexanal reduced by up to 174.7 μg/kg) and encouraged the formation of meaty aroma compounds (furans and pyrazines). However, excessive pretreatment (>40 min) reduced acceptance due to burnt odour caused by the excessive accumulation of pyrazines, particularly 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine. Six key volatile odour compounds were identified by integrating the analysis of variable importance projection (VIP ≥ 1) and relative odour activity value (ROAV ≥ 1), offering a foundation for targeted flavour regulation in HMPEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Protein Processing: Technological Innovation and New Application Scenarios)

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