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Although plastic film mulching enhances crop yield, it impedes water infiltration, potentially restricting agricultural productivity. To address this issue, we evaluated the effects of different mulching methods on cauliflower growth, yield performance, quality traits, soil properties, and irrigation water use efficiency. We implemented three mulching treatments and two control groups: combined straw and plastic film mulching (T1), partial straw mulching (T2), full straw mulching (T3), no mulching (CK1), and plastic film mulching alone (CK2). These treatments were applied to two consecutive crops of cauliflower over a two-year period (2019–2020) in the arid and semi-arid regions of Gansu Province, China. Our findings revealed that T1 significantly enhanced plant height, stem diameter, and both above- and belowground fresh biomass compared to CK2. Moreover, T1, T2, and T3 promoted the accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the roots, stems, and leaves, as well as the concentrations of macro- (N and K), meso- (Ca and Mg), and micro-elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn) in the cauliflower heads. Compared to CK2, the soluble sugar and vitamin C contents increased by 17.43% and 8.68% in T1, and the soluble protein contents increased by 13.10% and 9.50% in T2 and T3 compared to CK2. Conversely, the nitrate content decreased by 28.28%, 42.06%, and 31.54% in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Additionally, T1 increased economic yield and irrigation water use efficiency by 16.36–23.80% and 23.94–36.88% in the two years, along with notable improvements in the soil’s total nitrogen, total phosphorus, available phosphorus, and organic matter content. Multivariate classification modeling using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) further indicated that T1 enhanced cauliflower quality, yield, and irrigation water use efficiency and boosted soil fertility. These findings provide valuable insights for sustainable agricultural practices in arid and semi-arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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22 pages, 3139 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decoding Virulence Mechanisms of Bacillus anthracis Using a Galleria mellonella Infection Model: Differential Host Response Profiles Elicited by AtxA and PlcR

by Pengyao Wang, Dongshu Wang, Xiaojing Wang, Yufei Lyu, Sicheng Shen, Ruilin Hu, Li Zhu, Xiankai Liu and Hengliang Wang

Microorganisms 2026, 14(2), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14020505 (registering DOI) - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

A thorough understanding of the functions of virulence regulators in Bacillus anthracis evolution and host adaptation, particularly the systematic host responses they trigger, requires an efficient infection model capable of resolving subtle mechanisms. This study constructed a high-resolution host immune response decoder based on Galleria mellonella to analyze the specific response profiles elicited by different virulence regulators in a capsule-deficient background. By integrating transcriptomic, histopathological, and bacterial colonization analyses, the research delineated distinct host immune stress profiles regulated by AtxA and PlcR. The results showed that the AtxA-deficient strain failed to elicit significant host responses; wild-type infection activated broad systemic immune recognition pathways, while the PlcR-activated strain induced a unique response profile characterized by perturbations in oxidative stress pathways. Its enhanced virulence was associated with the expression of downstream hydrolases and occurred without strong systemic immune activation. This work successfully advanced the G. mellonella model from a phenotypic screener to a mechanistic resolver, providing a new methodological framework for distinguishing B. anthracis virulence regulatory mechanisms at the host response level. This approach not only deciphers pathogen-specific immune signatures but also offers a practical platform for rapid anti-virulence compound screening and guides the design of targeted validation in mammalian systems, thereby accelerating therapeutic strategy development against anthrax. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Microbiology and Immunology)

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24 pages, 799 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training and Low-Intensity Steady-State Exercise on Anthropometric Outcomes and Psychophysical Well-Being: A Pilot Study

by Felice Di Domenico, Giovanni Esposito, Sara Aliberti, Rosario Ceruso and Gaetano Raiola

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010088 (registering DOI) - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Background: Comparative evidence for the effectiveness of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and Low-Intensity Steady-State (LISS) exercise derived from real-world settings using standardized anthropometric assessments and subjective perception measures remains limited. This pilot study aimed to compare the effects of 12 weeks of HIIT and LISS on anthropometric outcomes assessed through ISAK measurements and on post-intervention subjective perceptions. Methods: Twenty-four physically active adults (n = 12 HIIT; n = 12 LISS) completed a 12-week supervised training program with three sessions per week. Exercise intensity was monitored by heart rate (HIIT: 80–95% HRmax; LISS: 60–70% HRmax). Anthropometric measurements were performed according to ISAK guidelines at baseline and after 4, 8, and 12 weeks. Subjective perceptions were assessed post-intervention using a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using parametric or non-parametric tests, as appropriate. Results: Both HIIT and LISS showed significant reductions over time in body mass, BMI, fat mass, and waist and hip circumferences (p < 0.001), with no between-group differences for the primary endpoint. Endomorphy decreased and ectomorphy increased significantly in both groups. A significant group × time interaction was observed for muscle mass (p < 0.001), favoring preservation or slight increases in HIIT. Post-intervention, psychological well-being was higher in LISS (p = 0.002), whereas perceived physical performance improvements were greater in HIIT (p = 0.002–<0.001). Conclusions: In a real-world personal training context, HIIT and LISS produced comparable improvements in body composition while eliciting different perceptual responses, supporting individualized exercise prescription. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Exercise for Health Promotion)

22 pages, 4147 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Microbial-Induced Carbonate Precipitation Parameters for Strength, Durability, and Environmental Safety of Phosphogypsum Road Base Materials

by Peiyao Sun, Xiaodi Hu, Jiaxi He, Quantao Liu and Pan Pan

Materials 2026, 19(4), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19040817 (registering DOI) - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the mechanical properties, moisture stability, and environmental safety of microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP)-treated phosphogypsum (PG)-based mixtures (MPGT) for road base utilization. Optimal cementation solution concentrations and bacterial-to-cementation solution ratios were determined via unconfined compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR), and splitting tensile strength tests. Durability was compared with untreated mixtures, and enhancement mechanisms were analyzed using XRD, SEM, and FTIR. Additionally, toxicity leaching tests evaluated environmental safety. Results indicated optimal parameters of 2.0 mol/L cementation solution and a 2:1 bacterial/cementation solution ratio for maximum mechanical strength. Under these conditions, MPGT durability significantly improved compared to untreated mixtures. Mechanism analysis revealed that MICP-generated calcium carbonate coats PG particles and fills voids, enhancing strength and durability. Furthermore, F⁻ and PO₄³⁻ leaching concentrations were significantly reduced. In summary, MICP improves the mechanical performance, durability, and environmental safety of PG-based mixtures, promoting PG recycling in road engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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19 pages, 2113 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Physics-Based Digital Twin Framework for a 3 MW Class Wind Turbine

by Changhyun Kim

Energies 2026, 19(4), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19041088 (registering DOI) - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

The increasing size and complexity of wind turbines have intensified the need for reliable real-time condition monitoring and health assessment. However, conventional numerical models often involve high computational demand, limiting their applicability for real-time digital twin implementation. This paper proposes a physics-based digital twin framework for the real-time health monitoring of a 3 MW class wind turbine. A physics-based numerical model was developed using Modelica 4.0.0 to simulate the electrical and mechanical behaviors of the wind turbine based on supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) inputs. Data preprocessing and wind speed calibration strategies were applied to reconcile nacelle-measured SCADA data with the turbine design specifications. Furthermore, reduced-order models (ROMs) were integrated with the physics-based numerical model to predict the thermal states of the generator and gearbox. Key operational parameters were selected through correlation analysis to enable accurate temperature prediction. Validation results demonstrate that the proposed digital twin accurately reproduces the dynamic behavior of the wind turbine, with the ROM-based temperature predictions showing agreement with SCADA measurements. The overall framework achieves a computation time within one second, indicating its suitability for real-time diagnostic and predictive maintenance applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section A3: Wind, Wave and Tidal Energy)

74 pages, 15071 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phylogeny and Systematics of Astigmata with Description of Lycoglyphidae fam. nov. and a Comprehensive Identification Key to Acaroidea

by Pavel B. Klimov, Vasiliy B. Kolesvikov and Barry M. OConnor

Taxonomy 2026, 6(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/taxonomy6010018 (registering DOI) - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Astigmata is a diverse lineage of mites with significant ecological, medical, and economic importance, yet higher-level relationships within the group remain contentious due to incongruent morphological and molecular data. Here, we integrate multigene data with comparative morphology and ecological traits to reassess phylogenetic relationships, with a focus on the newly described family Lycoglyphidae fam. nov. associated with puffball fungi. Phylogenetic analyses recover Lycoglyphidae within a well-supported cluster—the AR cluster—comprising Acaridae sensu novo, Rhizoglyphidae sensu novo, and several additional related lineages. Within this framework, previously unrecognized lineages such as Pontoppidaniidae (intertidal seaweed habitats) and Cerophagidae (bee-associated) are supported as monophyletic, showing ecological conservatism. Our phylogeny indicates that mating position is phylogenetically structured, with retroconjugate mating prevalent in the AR cluster (except Histiostomatoidea) and many other lineages, while proconjugate mating is present only in two lineages, Hemisarcoptoidea+Glycyphagidae and Rosensteiniidae+Aeroglyphidae. Finally, to facilitate identification and future research, we provide a taxonomic description of new taxa (Lycoglyphidae with Lycoglyphus gen. nov., Obelacarus gen. nov., and Viedebanttia) and a comprehensive key to the families and genera of Acaroidea based on both adults and deutonymphs. Our results clarify some higher-level relationships within Astigmata, indicate the importance of integrating molecular, morphological, and ecological evidence, and provide a practical resource for identification and comparative studies. Full article

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30 pages, 543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Corporate ESG Performance and Export Product Quality: Evidence from Chinese Listed Companies

by Mingguo Xia, Bing Jian and Ye Tian

Sustainability 2026, 18(4), 2118; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18042118 (registering DOI) - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

While it is a global imperative that firms should achieve superior environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance, the specific impact of ESG on export product quality remains under-explored. Based on stakeholder theory and principal–agent theory, this paper utilizes a sample of Chinese listed companies and the High-Dimensional Fixed Effects (HDFE) Model to empirically examine the impact and underlying mechanisms of ESG performance on export product quality. The results indicate a U-shaped relationship between ESG performance and export product quality, a non-linear correlation that has received limited attention in the previous literature. This U-shaped relationship is more pronounced among state-owned enterprises (SOEs), firms producing non-high-tech products, and those in heavy-polluting industries. Mechanism analysis reveals that ESG performance influences export product quality primarily through three channels: innovation levels, total factor productivity (TFP), and supply chain stability. By unveiling these non-linear dynamics and their underlying pathways, this study provides a novel theoretical framework and critical empirical evidence that reconcile conflicting views on ESG effects. These findings offer important insights for policymakers and exporters seeking to align ESG practices with export objectives, thereby contributing to more sustainable and high-quality development of foreign trade in China and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue ESG as a Catalyst for Business Sustainability: Theoretical Insights and Practical Applications)

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27 pages, 2423 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Evolution Analysis and Optimization Strategy Development for Ecological Carbon-Sink Security Patterns: A Case Study of Zhengzhou, China

by Zhetao Xiao, Xiaobing Xing, Lijun Hao, Hao Li and Genyu Xu

Sustainability 2026, 18(4), 2117; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18042117 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Carbon sinks have been widely recognized as critical components of climate change mitigation and achieving carbon neutrality. With rapid urbanization, protecting and optimizing urban carbon sinks remain major challenges. This study uses Zhengzhou as a case study and analyzes 2000–2023 land-use data with the InVEST model to quantify carbon stocks and identify high-value carbon-sink areas. Circuit theory was further integrated to delineate ecological security patterns and inform optimization strategies. The results show a net decrease of 19.12 × 10⁶ t in carbon storage from 2000 to 2023, with the most rapid decline occurring during 2015–2020. Spatially, high-value carbon storage clustered in forested, high-elevation areas in the southwest, whereas low values predominated in the urban core. Carbon-sink source areas continued to shrink: fragmentation increased in the east, the west remained relatively stable, and the central area was highly fragmented. Corridor analysis indicated that the mean corridor length first increased and then decreased, accompanied by an expansion of pinch points and barrier areas. The study developed a systematic optimization framework that establishes a “Two Cores, Five Carbon-Sink Areas, Multiple Corridors” security pattern and proposes targeted conservation measures. The proposed methodology and findings offer a transferable basis for managing urban carbon sinks in rapidly developing regions and support both ecological security and climate-change mitigation, promoting sustainable urban development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient, and Sustainable Built Environment)

21 pages, 906 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Competencies of Digitally Fluent Educators in Higher Education: A Delphi Study

by Helen Huiqing Hwu, Daniel Foster, Crystal Ramsay, Angela Dick and Na Li

Educ. Sci. 2026, 16(2), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci16020342 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Adaptability and flexibility in teaching with digital technologies are essential for instructors to navigate dynamic and ever-evolving educational contexts. However, little has been done to investigate the underlying competencies required of instructors to fluently integrate technologies into their instructional practices. This study employed the Delphi method to address this gap and identify the competencies of a digitally fluent educator in higher education. Through three rounds of data analysis, 36 experts across multiple higher education institutions reached consensus on 14 competencies, including 8 knowledge, 3 skills, and 3 dispositions as indicators of an educator fluent in applying digital tools. The final list of competencies highlights the importance of metacognitive skills, conditional knowledge, and a disposition to be adaptable when defining fluency in digital instruction. The findings indicate a differentiation between digital fluency and previous paradigms such as digital literacy and digital competency. Implications for competency-based professional development opportunities and future research are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Literacy for Teaching Excellence: Empowering Educators in the Digital Age)

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25 pages, 6047 KB

Open AccessArticle

Restoring Faith and Form: Challenges and Strategies in the Preservation of Lord Guan Temples in Southern Shanxi

by Ye Tian and Xiaohuan Zhao

Religions 2026, 17(2), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020265 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Guan Yu (d. AD 220), better known by his posthumous title as Guan Gong or Lord Guan, was a prominent military general in the late Han dynasty (AD 206–220). For centuries, Lord Guan has been widely worshipped as both a god of war and a god of wealth throughout China. His worship is particularly prevalent in southern Shanxi, which is celebrated as his birthplace. This region features a notable array of temples dating from the late imperial period, many of which are specifically dedicated to his cult. As tangible heritage, Lord Guan temples represent a significant facet of Chinese architectural and religious history. Today, they continue to serve as religious spaces, where pilgrims and devotees come together to honour the deity through ritual practices and theatrical performances. These activities not only reinforce the community’s religious beliefs but also help to perpetuate the cultural and historical traditions associated with Lord Guan’s worship. Based on fieldwork conducted between 2023 and 2025, the study scrutinises the restoration, preservation and conservation challenges faced by these sacred spaces and structures, emphasising the ongoing tension and collaboration between grassroots religious practices and state-led restoration initiatives. Through this examination, the paper sheds light on the multifaceted nature of tangible and intangible heritage conservation and its implications for Lord Guan’s cult in contemporary society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temple Art, Architecture and Theatre)

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12 pages, 859 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Model Reference Adaptive Disturbance Suppression Control for Marine Canned Magnetic Bearings

by Jiawang Pan, Hao Jiang, Zhenzhong Su, Qi Liu and Yajian Li

Actuators 2026, 15(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15020129 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

To overcome the limitations of conventional control strategies in simultaneously suppressing external sway disturbances and internal parameter variations—induced by strong eddy current effects in marine canned magnetic bearings (MBs)—this paper introduces an improved model reference adaptive control (MRAC) method. First, electromagnetic force and dynamic models of the marine canned MBs are developed, taking into account eddy current effects and oscillatory motion. On this basis, a state observer is designed to estimate the system’s unknown dynamics. A predictive error term is formulated to capture the combined influence of model uncertainties and external disturbances. An adaptive law is then applied to compensate for these unknown dynamics and external disturbances. Moreover, the stability of the marine canned MBs system under the proposed improved MRAC scheme is rigorously analyzed using Lyapunov stability theory. Simulation results confirm the effectiveness of the algorithm, showing that, compared with conventional PID control, the improved MRAC approach reduces rotor vibration by more than 53%, significantly strengthening the disturbance rejection performance of marine canned MBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Levitation and Actuator Integration: From Fundamental Research to Emerging Applications)

27 pages, 32027 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Influence of Coal-Tunnel Angle and Construction Parameters on the Interaction Mechanism Between Surrounding Rock and Support in Coal-Crossing Tunnels

by Zhuo Chen, Chen Chen, Xinjie Zhang, Kaixin Yu, Jiaying Li, Zhengnan Liu and Biyuan Yang

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 2090; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16042090 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

When a tunnel traverses an inclined coal seam, the coal-tunnel angle α of the seam significantly alters the stress distribution in the surrounding rock, its failure mode, and the loading conditions on the support structure. This study investigates the influence of coal-tunnel angle α on surrounding rock stability and support structure loads, with the No. 1 Meijiaxiang Tunnel on the Wengma Railway in Guizhou Province serving as the engineering case. An integrated approach combining laboratory tests, numerical simulations, and engineering verification is employed. Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the basic mechanical properties of the limestone and coal. A refined 3D finite element model was developed in MIDAS GTS NX to analyze the effects of coal-tunnel angle α (α = 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 90°) and different construction methods on surrounding rock deformation, plastic zone development, and the stress state of the initial support. The results indicate that the coal-tunnel angle α significantly influences tunnel stability. Both crown settlement and the plastic zone extent decrease notably as α increases. Among the construction methods, the reserved core soil method most effectively controls surrounding rock deformation, but induces greater stress concentration in the initial support. Furthermore, for the most unfavorable case (α = 30°), an optimization analysis of the cyclic advanced length for the reserved core soil method was conducted. It is shown that using an 8 m advanced length can effectively control settlement while significantly reducing support stress and bolt axial forces. With its integrated methodology and detailed parameter analysis, this study provides a valuable theoretical and practical reference for optimizing the design and ensuring the safe construction of similar tunnels traversing inclined coal seams in complex soft–hard interbedded strata. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)

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20 pages, 1473 KB

Open AccessArticle

Permeability Evolution of Impure Rock Salt Under Triaxial Stress with Implications for Underground Energy Storage

by Guan Wang, Jianfeng Liu, Michael Zhengmeng Hou and Shengyou Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 2091; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16042091 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Impure rock salt is increasingly used as a host medium for underground hydrogen and compressed air energy storage in China; however, its permeability evolution under stress remains insufficiently constrained. This study presents a systematic experimental and modeling investigation of the permeability behavior of impure rock salt from the Pingdingshan (Henan) and Yunying (Hubei) salt mines. Nineteen cylindrical specimens were subjected to full-process triaxial permeability testing, including initial measurements, hydrostatic damage recovery, and staged deviatoric loading. A hydrostatic recovery stage (15 h at 40 MPa) was applied to reduce coring- and machining-induced micro-damage, resulting in a permeability reduction in one to three orders of magnitude. After recovery, the initial permeability decreases nonlinearly with increasing effective stress and converges to approximately 10⁻²¹ m² at stress levels corresponding to in situ burial depths. During deviatoric loading, permeability exhibits a two-stage response: a rapid increase associated with early damage and microcrack initiation, followed by saturation once the dilatant volumetric strain exceeds approximately 1–2%. Impurity content influences both the magnitude and evolution of permeability by modifying the initial pore structure and damage development; however, the response is non-monotonic and region-dependent due to differences in dominant impurity mineralogy. Based on the experimental results, a semi-theoretical permeability model incorporating effective stress, dilatant strain, and impurity content was developed. The model reproduces the observed permeability evolution under different confining pressures with good agreement, providing a practical framework for evaluating the hydraulic integrity of impure rock salt in underground energy storage applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

57 pages, 2619 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability-Based Design Optimisation of Bridge Systems Within BIM—Robustness, Redundancy and Safety Metrics

by John Dixon, Van Bac Nguyen and Boris Ceranic

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040854 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Research shows that structures are often over designed in reliability-based calculations compared to code requirements. To address the knowledge gap in applying Reliability Based Design Optimisation (RBDO) within Building Information Modelling (BIM), this paper presents a novel BIM-integrated RBDO system for highway structures aimed at reducing over design. The approach is aimed at optimising the system reliability index. This value is then applied to the BIM model of the structure as a direct safety metric describing the probability of failure. In addition, minimum robustness and redundancy indices can be derived using this approach to ensure overall compliance with structural design codes, (Eurocodes), yielding key BIM model safety metrics. The system reliability index was optimised by utilising target limit state reliability indices to derive system difference target limits. System element reliability indices were effectively increased or reduced by manipulating element resistance parameters. An optimisation algorithm was employed to ensure compliance with the minimum system difference target limits. A secondary verification was undertaken to ensure minimal element target reliability indices were not compromised. The system reliability-based case studies on one-span bridge structures demonstrated that optimisation resulted in an overall 15% reduction in design resistance compared with the Eurocodes design method. In addition to highlighting element overdesign, the balance between safety and economy is improved by yielding comprehensive structural system safety metrics as a safer approach than direct element reliability-based optimisation. Full article

22 pages, 15555 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Physics-Guided Dual-Sensor Framework for Bearing Fault Diagnosisin PMDC Motor Drives

by Tae-Seong Sim, Nnamdi Chukwunweike Aronwora and Jang-Wook Hur

Sensors 2026, 26(4), 1363; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26041363 - 20 Feb 2026

Abstract

Rolling-element bearing faults are a primary mechanical failure mode in rotating systems. In Permanent Magnetic DC (PMDC) motor applications operating under variable torque, vibration-based diagnosis is affected by load-dependent excitation and commutation-induced disturbances, which introduce amplitude bias and reduce the reliability of conventional statistical features. This study proposes Cross-Reference Energy Attention (CREA), a physics-guided dual-sensor feature framework for three-class bearing states in PMDC motor systems. CREA isolates fault-relevant content within a hardware-agnostic, empirically selected mid-frequency carrier band and incorporates a spatially separated reference sensor to evaluate transmission consistency. This design suppresses disturbances generated locally by the motor while retaining structurally transmitted bearing signatures. Experiments were conducted on a PMDC motor dynamometer with seeded bearing defects under controlled torque variation. GroupKFold cross-validation was implemented using the acquisition run as the grouping variable to prevent data leakage across runs. Under per-run normalization designed to eliminate amplitude memorization, conventional motor-side baseline features degraded to 0.495 ± 0.110 window-level accuracy, whereas the four-feature CREA representation maintained 0.999 ± 0.002. Systematic ablation and SHAP analysis demonstrate that carrier-band energy features provide the dominant discriminatory contribution, while cross-sensor interaction metrics supply complementary transmission validation consistent with the underlying mechanical model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Sensors for Condition Monitoring, Diagnosis, and Prognostics, 2nd Edition)

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