Search Results (464)

Polyelectrolyte complex (PEC)-based carriers offer a promising strategy to improve the oral delivery of anti-inflammatory agents with limited bioavailability or variable pharmacodynamic profiles. This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of previously optimized formulations of chitosan/xanthan gum PEC microparticles loaded with either ibuprofen or escin, using the carrageenan-induced paw edema model, histopathological and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) immunohistochemical analyses, and the hot plate test. Ibuprofen-loaded microparticles significantly reduced paw swelling during the peak inflammatory phase (5–6 h after treatment administration), although no significant differences in overall edema response or antinociceptive activity were observed compared with free ibuprofen. In contrast, escin-loaded microparticles at 10 mg/kg produced the most pronounced anti-inflammatory effect, significantly reducing paw swelling, edema area under the curve (AUC), histopathological lesion scores, and COX-2 expression compared with both the negative control and the corresponding free escin formulation. Escin-loaded microparticles also showed stronger and more sustained antinociceptive activity than free escin. However, the 20 mg/kg formulation did not provide additional anti-inflammatory or antinociceptive benefits. These findings demonstrate that chitosan/xanthan gum PEC microparticles can enhance the pharmacodynamic performance of orally administered anti-inflammatory agents. The magnitude of this effect depended on the incorporated drug and was particularly notable for escin, for which microencapsulation improved both anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive efficacy. Full article

Conventional oxidative hair dyes rely on aromatic amines, raising concerns about human health and environmental safety. This study reports a natural hair-coloring system using size-controlled ink particles (SIPs, ~170 nm in diameter) from cuttlefish ink and chitosan. Because both SIPs and hair surfaces carry negative charges near neutral pH, original SIPs exhibited poor deposition onto hair. Polyelectrolyte complexation with chitosan reversed the SIP surface charge under acidic conditions (maximum ζ ≈ +41 mV at pH 2.4), enabling electrostatic deposition onto hair fibers. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) revealed pH-responsive aggregation at pH 1.6–1.8 and redispersion at pH 2.8–4.3, while ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectra confirmed that the broadband absorption of melanin was preserved, consistent with predominantly noncovalent interactions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed a particle-based composite coating on hair fibers. An optimal SIP:chitosan weight ratio of 10:1 at pH ~4.7 yielded the darkest and most uniform coloration (L* = 32.89, ΔE*_ab = 55.89) without metallic mordants, achieving darker coloration than representative plant-based natural colorants reported in the literature. These results demonstrate a marine-biomass-derived approach to natural black hair coloration with strong darkening performance. Full article

Background/Objectives: Amlodipine is an antihypertensive agent characterized by low aqueous solubility and variable oral bioavailability. This study aimed to formulate and characterize amlodipine–alginate nanoplexes and to incorporate the optimized system into an oral film dosage form. Methods: Nanoplexes were prepared via ionic complexation employing alginates (ALG) with diverse physicochemical properties, including low (LV) and medium (MV)-viscosity grades, as well as alginates with varying M/G ratios. The nanoplexes were thoroughly characterized employing a comprehensive set of analytical techniques. In addition, intermolecular interactions were examined using computational simulation studies. Results: The nanoplexes demonstrated high encapsulation efficiencies (>80%), with MV alginate yielding particles with greater drug loading but larger mean diameters compared with that prepared using LV alginate. Computational simulation studies revealed favorable interaction energies between the drug and the polyelectrolyte, particularly within microenvironments enriched in guluronic acid–rich repeat regions. These interactions were corroborated by infrared spectroscopy, while differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the amorphous solid state of amlodipine within the nanoplexes. Dissolution studies demonstrated an inverse relationship between alginate viscosity and drug release rate, with formulations based on LV alginate exhibiting rapid drug release. The final hydroxypropylmethylcellulose film incorporating ALG-MV nanoplexes exhibited adequate mechanical integrity and achieved approximately 95% drug release within 30 min. Conclusions: The developed film presenting a viable approach to enhance the delivery of amlodipine. Overall, this approach constitutes a significant advancement in the delivery of poorly soluble drugs through the integration of nanostructured systems with flexible oral film platforms. Full article

Background/Objectives: Tuberculosis treatment remains challenging due to the limited stability and side effects of conventional rifampicin formulations. This study aimed to synthesize and optimize mucoadhesive chitosan–gellan gum nanoparticles for improved rifampicin delivery. The novelty of this work was the introduction of ethanol into the synthesis process, which improved the solubility of rifampicin and contributed to the formation of nanoparticles with the desired physicochemical characteristics. Methods: Rifampicin-loaded chitosan–gellan gum nanoparticles were produced using the polyelectrolyte complex coacervation method. The polymer ratios, drug-to-polymer ratio, temperature and ethanol volume were the main factors that were optimized using the Taguchi method. The physicochemical properties, such as TGA, DSC and FTIR spectroscopy, were investigated. In addition, drug release, mucoadhesive properties and mycobacterial activity against the H37Rv strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis were examined. Results: Optimization using the Taguchi method produced nanoparticles with a narrow particle distribution (PDI: 0.212 ± 0.021), a satisfactory average size (153 ± 3 nm) and stability against aggregation (zeta potential: 22.94 ± 1.30 mV). A study of the degree of rifampicin release from nanoparticles showed that the drug release is influenced by pH and has a prolonged effect. Drug-loaded nanoparticles exhibited increased mucoadhesion compared with the pure drug. The minimum inhibitory concentration of rifampicin in chitosan–gellan gum nanoparticles for the suppression of the H37RV strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was determined. Spectroscopic and thermal analyses confirmed the incorporation of rifampicin in the polymer matrix. Conclusions: The developed chitosan–gellan gum nanoparticles represent a promising mucoadhesive delivery system for rifampicin. The incorporation of ethanol and the use of Taguchi optimization provide an effective strategy for controlling nanoparticle properties and improving drug delivery performance. Full article

In this study, a hierarchical design strategy is introduced for tuning the release of rosmarinic acid (RA) from electrospun poly(L-lactide) (PLA) fibrous materials via surface engineering with chitosan/hyaluronic acid (Ch/HA) polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs). RA was selectively incorporated within the fiber bulk, the PEC coating, or both, enabling control over its spatial distribution. The PEC coating, formed by sequential dip coating, was shown to act as a diffusion-regulating layer with a dual role—either retarding RA release or promoting rapid initial release when functioning as a surface-associated reservoir. As a result, the release kinetics could be systematically tuned depending on the coating architecture and RA localization. Thorough characterization confirmed successful coating formation, enhanced surface hydrophilicity, and improved mechanical performance. All RA-loaded materials retained high antioxidant activity and exhibited pronounced antibacterial and antifungal effects against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans. This work introduces PEC-modified electrospun systems as a versatile platform for the rational design of multifunctional fibrous biomaterials with controlled release profiles, with potential applications in wound healing and drug delivery. Full article

Botrytis cinerea is a major phytopathogen responsible for significant postharvest losses in plant-derived foods. The increasing resistance to synthetic fungicides has driven the search for sustainable alternatives, including enzyme-based biofungicides. In this study, the proteolytic fraction P1G10 from Vasconcellea pubescens latex was encapsulated in an alginate–chitosan (ALG-CS) matrix to improve its stability and antifungal performance. The encapsulated formulation (ALG-CS-P1G10) retained ~95% enzymatic activity after 8 h under stress conditions (37 °C, 1350 lux), compared with 67% for the free enzyme. In vitro assays demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition of B. cinerea growth, with an IC₅₀ value of ~11 mg/mL determined using a logistic model. At this concentration, the formulation reduced fungal adhesion by more than 80% and increased sensitivity to cell wall-disrupting agents (Congo Red and Calcofluor White), pointing to alterations in cell wall integrity. Importantly, the encapsulated system provided a more stable and sustained antifungal effect, consistent with a controlled-release mechanism. These results demonstrate that coupling enzyme stabilization with controlled release can improve the functional performance of protease-based antifungal systems, offering a promising strategy for the development of biofungicides in postharvest applications. Full article

Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) are recognized as promising materials for the development of sustainable food packaging. In this study, eco-friendly PECs based on pectin (P) and chitosan (C) were prepared by solvent casting at different pH values and volume ratios (C, P, 1C:1P, 1C:2.5P, and 1C:5P) (v/v). The resulting films were characterized for numerous features, including thickness, opacity, moisture content, swelling degree, and water solubility, while mechanical performance (elongation at break and tensile strength), water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), surface energy, and anti-adhesive activity were evaluated for the most promising formulation. The results revealed that blending chitosan with pectin significantly improved the films’ physicochemical properties, notably by increasing thickness (up to 100 µm) and opacity (slightly above 2) while reducing the swelling degree (from over 1800% for pure chitosan to below 600% for 1C:2.5P film at pH 3.2) and the water solubility (from 100% for pectin films to around 45–50% for the blended films). The film 1C:2.5P at pH 3.2 showed improved barrier performance, with a lower WVTR (approximately 20 g/h·m²) compared to the single polymer films (more than 30 g/h·m²), and exhibited significant anti-adhesive activity by reducing bacterial adhesion to below 5% compared to 65% for the conventional packaging film. However, these improvements were accompanied by reduced tensile strength (From ~4.2 MPa to ~1.3 MPa) and in elongation at break (from ~50% to ~20%). Overall, PEC films demonstrate strong potential as sustainable packaging materials by combining improved barrier properties and anti-adhesive activity, despite some limitations in mechanical resistance. Full article

The structure collapse and performance degradation caused by traditional air-drying technology often hinder the practical application of bio-based xerogels as absorbent pads. In this study, chitosan (CS) and different types of polyanions (carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), sodium alginate (SA), hyaluronic acid (HA), pectin (PT) and xanthan gum (XG)) in different proportions were used to prepare an xerogel resistant to atmospheric pressure air drying collapse, and its potential as an absorption pad was systematically evaluated. The results showed that among all the treatments, CS/CMC xerogel at an optimal mass ratio of 1:3 demonstrated superior comprehensive properties. It exhibited minimal shrinkage (p < 0.05) and high porosity, coupled with an exceptional water absorption capacity (140% higher than CS/PT) and hardness (96% higher than CS/SA and CS/HA). FTIR and XRD revealed that strong electrostatic interactions and potential amide bond formation between CS and CMC resulted in a dense yet homogeneous network with low crystallinity. SEM imaging further corroborated a uniform thin-walled porous structure. This stable network contributed to high toughness, of CS/CMC significantly surpassing the brittle CS/XG and CS/PT xerogels (p < 0.05). CS/CMC xerogel is an ideal absorbent material with high absorption, stability, and controllable structure. Full article

Brown algae are a valuable source of bioactive secondary metabolites, particularly polyphenols and sulfated polysaccharides with photoprotective and antioxidant activities. Among them, fucoidan stands out for its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and demonstrated photoprotective effects, mainly through antioxidant and anti-photoaging properties, making it a promising natural component for UV-protective formulations. This study developed polyelectrolyte complex sub-micron particles based on fucoidan and chitosan (F/Cs) to encapsulate quercetin (Q) as a natural UV-active antioxidant. Fucoidan from Sargassum filipendula was extracted and fractionated by ultrafiltration. An RCBD was used to optimize pH and F/Cs mass ratio. The optimal blank formulation (F/Cs = 1:1, pH 5.0) yielded sub-micron colloidal carriers with a mean hydrodynamic diameter of 421 ± 23 nm (PDI 0.252 ± 0.059) with ζ = +43.5 ± 1.6 mV. Quercetin-loaded particles (F/Cs/Q = 1:1:0.5) presented 915 ± 87 nm (PDI 0.278 ± 0.093) and ζ = +54.6 ± 1.2 mV. UV–Vis spectra evidenced UVB and partial UVA absorption for fucoidan and broad UVA/UVB coverage for quercetin, preserved upon encapsulation. Antioxidant activity was retained post-encapsulation (EC50, DPPH: 0.094 mg/mL; ABTS: 0.0749 mg/mL). These results demonstrate the potential of fucoidan–chitosan colloidal systems as multifunctional, biodegradable carriers for natural photoprotective agents, supporting their application in next-generation dermatological and cosmeceutical formulations. Full article

Among the most structurally diverse biomacromolecules, polysaccharides have attracted increased attention as nanocarriers for precision medicine due to their inherent biocompatibility and versatility in functionalization. Molecular features, such as monomer composition, glycosidic linkages, charge density, and chemical modification, essentially determine the nanoscale assembly process of these biopolymers, as well as their biological compatibility. This review highlights the role of these properties in the assembly process of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers leading to a variety of self-assembled nanostructures, such as polyelectrolyte complexes, protein–polysaccharide complexes, amphiphilic micelles, vesicles, hybrid systems, and nanogels, which are extensively discussed throughout the review. This review also focuses on the structure–property–function relationships of nanocarriers as applied to the rapidly developing area of precision medicine, emphasizing the problems of sustainability and reproducibility. By combining the principles of molecular engineering, supramolecular assembly, and measurable properties, this work aims to present a unified view of the molecular engineering of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for enhanced translation potential, as well as to outline a coherent framework for the rational development of next-generation polysaccharide-based nanocarriers with improved clinical relevance. Full article

Alginate–chitosan composites are widely used bio-based materials due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and relatively simple processing methods. By combining the complementary properties of alginate and chitosan, these systems offer adjustable mechanical characteristics suitable for applications such as tissue engineering, wound healing, drug delivery, and sustainable packaging. However, although many studies report improved mechanical properties, the link between structural design and mechanical behavior is often discussed within specific applications rather than examined in a broader context. This review focuses on how polymer ratio, charge balance, crosslinking strategy, reinforcement approach, and processing conditions influence the mechanical properties of alginate–chitosan composites. Instead of considering these factors separately, the available studies are discussed in terms of how the internal structure of the composite affects stiffness, strength, deformability, and stability. This review brings together findings from various fields to highlight shared structure–mechanical relationships and to provide guidance for designing alginate–chitosan composites with specific mechanical properties. Full article

Cutaneous wound healing is a complex biological process often impaired by bacterial infections, especially by Staphylococcus aureus. To address this, alginate (ALG)/chitosan (CS) polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) films incorporating alginate-coated silver nanoparticles (ALG–AgNPs) were fabricated by layer-by-layer self-assembly. The films exhibited a porous, layered morphology with homogeneous distribution of ALG–AgNPs, hydrophilic surfaces (contact angle ≈ 55°), a high swelling degree (~175%), and a water vapor transmission rate of 1830 g m⁻²·day⁻¹. Thermal analyses showed similar degradation profiles up to 600 °C, with the ALG–AgNP film displaying lower moisture loss and higher dehydration temperature, consistent with enhanced ionic and coordination crosslinking (–NH₃⁺/–COO⁻ and Ag–O–C bonds). The release of Ag⁺ in PBS (pH 7.4) was ~3% after 24 h, following a Korsmeyer–Peppas mechanism (R² = 0.97, n < 0.5), and degradation, with ~40% mass loss in 6 days, indicated gradual matrix disintegration. Cytocompatibility studies revealed >80% viability for fibroblasts, keratinocytes, macrophages, and <2% hemolysis of red blood cells. Immune assays showed a tendency towards reduced TNF-α and IL-1β and regulated IL-6/IL-8 release. Antibacterial evaluations demonstrated a 5-log reduction in planktonic bacterial viability and >2-log reduction in adhesion, and an 11 ± 1 mm inhibition zone for S. aureus. These results demonstrate that ALG/CS–AgNP PEM films combine biocompatibility, antibacterial efficacy, controlled degradation, and structural stability, making them promising multifunctional scaffolds for the regeneration of infected skin wounds. Full article

Polysaccharide-based nanocarriers offer a novel delivery system for improving the stability, controlled release, and biological functionality of plant-derived bioactive materials. Olive leaf extract (OLE), rich in polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant and other bioactive properties, is limited by low stability and bioavailability. In this study, OLE-loaded alginate–chitosan nanoparticles were prepared using ionotropic gelation–polyelectrolyte complexation (IG-PEC) method, and their physicochemical properties, cytotoxic behavior, and potential prebiotic effects were evaluated. The resulting nanoparticles (232–237 nm) exhibited uniform spherical morphology, negative zeta potentials, and improved colloidal stability. Free OLE demonstrated concentration-dependent and selective cytotoxicity toward A549 and MCF-7 cancer cells, while exhibiting lower toxicity toward normal fibroblasts. In contrast, unloaded and OLE-loaded nanoparticles (1X, 2X) showed low cytotoxicity, suggesting superior biocompatibility of the polysaccharide nanocarrier. Notably, cultures supplemented with OLE-loaded nanoparticles showed a trend toward higher probiotic growth compared to free OLE, indicating a potential prebiotic effect and improved microbial tolerance to polyphenols during extended exposure. These findings highlight the advantages of polysaccharide-based nanoencapsulation for both stabilizing bioactive materials and supporting favorable microbial responses. The developed OLE nanocarriers may serve as a promising platform for nutraceutical, biomedical, and functional food applications. Full article

The growing environmental impact of petroleum-based plastics has intensified research into sustainable, biodegradable alternatives for food packaging. Among bio-derived polymers, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) has attracted increasing attention due to its abundance, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and excellent film-forming ability. Nevertheless, the intrinsic hydrophilicity and limited mechanical strength of neat CMC restrict its direct application in packaging systems. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of recent strategies developed between 2015 and 2025 to enhance the performance of CMC-based films for food packaging applications. Emphasis is placed on physical and chemical modification routes, including polymer blending, polyelectrolyte complex formation, incorporation of functional fillers and nanomaterials, and ionic or covalent crosslinking approaches. The influence of these strategies on key functional properties, such as mechanical behavior, water barrier performance, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, is systematically discussed. Particular attention is given to CMC-rich systems, enabling meaningful comparison across studies. By highlighting structure–property relationships and identifying current limitations, this review aims to provide guidance for the rational design of advanced CMC-based materials as viable, eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastic packaging. Full article

Protein–polyelectrolyte entities (complex, coacervates, flocs, gels, etc.) are of great interest due to their potential applications in biological and medical fields. This study focuses on investigating the interactions between a model protein, human serum albumin (HSA) and a newly synthesized hybrid thermoresponsive copolymer based on chitosan polysaccharide grafted with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) synthetic polymer chains (Chit-g-PNIPAM), in aqueous media, by mixing the individual component aqueous solutions. Depending on the mixing molar ratio and the order of addition of the two components (protein and copolymer), either stable nanostructured suspension or macrostructures’ phase separation have been observed. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) results reveal that the Chit-g-PNIPAM/HSA_x (molar ratio 5:x, where x = 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 and 15) nanostructures’ and HSA/Chit-g-PNIPAM_x (molar ratio 100:x, where x = 1, 2, 3, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50) structures’ formation depend on the molar ratio of the two components as well as on the order of addition, with first component amount being kept constant in aqueous solution and second component solution added drop-by-drop in the solution of the first component. Additional information regarding the thermoresponsiveness and stability vs time of the formed (nano)structures were acquired using turbidimetry and DLS measurements. Full article