Search Results (76)

Agricultural soils worldwide carry a growing imbalance of heavy metal (loid)s—arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and chromium (Cr)—driven by mining, industry, and intensive farming inputs. Crop uptake is governed by the bioavailable fraction rather than by total content alone, but the two are not independent: the total pool sets the ceiling from which the available fraction is drawn, so the relationship is real yet neither direct nor linear. This critical review appraises green management strategies that control metal (loid) accumulation in the edible tissues of staple crops, and it does so comparatively rather than by catalog. We first define the evidence base—search strategy, screening and quality criteria, and the geographic and crop distribution of the literature—and then evaluate four strategy families against seven explicit criteria (efficacy, evidence level, durability, co-metal trade-off, cost, life-cycle footprint, applicability domain): water, redox and agronomic management; immobilization amendments, including lime, biochar, iron/manganese oxides, and nano-enabled sorbents; plant-based strategies, from low-accumulation cultivars to silicon/selenium supplementation; and microbial-assisted remediation. Four patterns recur across independent field studies. First, redox- and pH-based interventions are the most reproducible where Cd dominates, but their reported efficacy spans an order of magnitude because performance depends on baseline pH, contaminant load and control definition. Second, every Cd-effective measure is neutral or adverse for As, so As-dominated and co-contaminated sites require opposing prescriptions; this is the single most consequential contradiction in the literature. Third, durability rather than initial efficacy is the binding constraint, because most field trials report three seasons or fewer. Fourth, microbial and nano-enabled approaches are the least transferable, with most quantitative claims resting on pot or mesocosm data. We conclude that no currently available measure, and no validated combination, guarantees compliance in edible tissues at every site; safe use is conditional on diagnosis of the bioavailable fraction, a site-specific package, and grain-level verification before marketing, and diversion to non-food or industrial cropping is the defensible fallback where that assurance cannot be given. Full article

This study evaluated the effects of diatomite (DT) and fly ash (FA) on soil pH, silicon (Si) availability, nutrient partitioning, and sweet corn (Zea mays L. var. saccharata) productivity in sandy loam soil under greenhouse conditions in northeastern Thailand. A 12-week pot experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with DT (6 and 12 g/pot), DT combined with FA (10 and 20% of DT), silicic acid (SA), and a control. Combined DT + FA treatments increased soil pH by up to 17.8% (6.57 to 7.74) and enhanced water-soluble Si by up to 53.6% (51.35 mg/kg), indicating sustained Si release. Sweet corn yield was improved, with the highest cob fresh and dry weights recorded under DT (12 g/pot) + FA (10%) (~30% increase over control). The highest total fresh biomass was observed under DT (6 g/pot) + FA (10%), suggesting enhanced vegetative growth at lower DT rates. Nutrient uptake increased markedly, particularly for N and Si, with Si accumulation mainly seen in straw. These responses reflect integrated effects of Si availability, pH improvement, and nutrient inputs rather than Si alone. Overall, DT + FA improved soil properties and plant performance; however, results from this short-term pot study should be interpreted cautiously. Long-term field studies are required to assess sustainability and environmental risks. Full article

There exist multiple conflicting challenges in dryland agricultural production: excessive chemical fertilizer input contrasts with low utilization efficiency of maize straw resources, and long-term over-fertilization triggers continuous degradation of farmland soil fertility. To explore the soil improvement and growth-promoting potential of silicon-modified biochar-based fertilizers, this study conducted relevant preparation and pot experiments. This study used maize stover as feedstock to investigate the effects of pyrolysis temperature and silica modification on the structural characteristics of biochar. Raw biochar was pyrolyzed at 400–600 °C and subsequently modified with sodium silicate. Biochar-based fertilizers were then produced using modified biochar as the carrier, and their influences on soil physicochemical properties, soil enzyme activities, and foxtail millet growth were analyzed via pot experiments. The results indicate that 500 °C is the optimal pyrolysis temperature for maize straw biochar. After sodium silicate modification, the specific surface area of modified biochar increased by 18.84% relative to unmodified raw biochar, accompanied by a more developed surface pore structure. The application of biochar-based fertilizers significantly reduced soil pH and increased soil carbon stocks and available nutrient content. All biochar-based fertilizer treatments significantly improved foxtail millet growth, among which the BF3 treatment showed the strongest growth-promoting performance. Compared with the sole chemical fertilizer (CF), BF3 increased plant height by 63.72% and total biomass by 54.27%, while stem diameter decreased by 11.41%. In summary, sodium silicate-modified biochar-based fertilizer pyrolyzed at 500 °C can effectively improve soil quality and promote millet growth, with a biochar-to-fertilizer ratio of 1:3 being the optimal formulation for dryland millet cultivation. This study provides a direct basis for the compatibility evaluation of biochar-based fertilizers in dryland foxtail millet cultivation. Full article

The goal of agrivoltaic engineers is to use growing space for the synergistic production of both food and energy, typically via photovoltaic (PV) capture. Most research in this area has been carried out in arid, high-light environments, but subtropical and temperate regions are also critical production zones, and installation designs vary considerably. In this study, tomato and lettuce production using an agrivoltaic high tunnel (HT) design specific for a subtropical environment (NE Georgia, USA, USDA Zone 8A) was tested using organic production standards. The design utilized typical HTs (approx. 11 m × 5 m) with solar panel arrays hung internally. The design aimed to (1) meet off-grid power needs, (2) mitigate excessive temperature and humidity, (3) balance shade and plant productivity, and (4) simplify installation and maintenance. Treatments were replicated at the HT level, and cultivar differences were assessed to identify genotypes that might serve in future work to optimize yield under partial shade. In 2023 and 2024, we employed novel organic photovoltaic (OPV) panels, which are partially opaque. The OPV panels provided sufficient energy needs to maintain beneficial conditions without external power sources. In 2024, tomato plants in the OPV HTs experienced an area-weighted daily light integral (DLI, mol photons m⁻² d⁻¹) of approximately 31.8 (95% CI [28.9, 34.7]), compared to 34.7 (95% CI [31.8, 37.6]) in non-OPV HTs, an approximate reduction of 8%. Average maximum temperatures in the OPV HTs were 33.5 °C (95% CI [30.6, 36.4], compared to 35.1 °C (95% CI [30.9, 39.2]) in the non-OPV HTs, an approximate reduction of 1.6 °C. In 2023, tomato marketable yield was reduced by approximately 0.9 kg per plant in OPV HTs compared to non-OPV HTs (p = 0.023). In 2024, yields were statistically equivalent across all treatments (p > 0.1), while marketable fraction was improved relative to 2023 and was greatest in the HTs. Lettuce yield for both years was unaffected by the presence of HTs or OPV panels (p > 0.1). In 2025, we conducted an additional experiment using a shade-equivalent array of conventional 100% opaque photovoltaic (PV) panels and observed a similar reduction in DLI and no significant impact on tomato yield parameters (p > 0.1 Both designs were effective at equilibrating conditions inside the HTs to ambient temperature levels outside the tunnels. Using results from the study, an app for agrivoltaic value estimation was developed. Based on that software, the presented agrivoltaic design under currently available silicon–PV technology achieves an 18% annual return, assuming system depreciation is minimal and surplus energy could be applied to other on-farm needs. Full article

Biomineralization in plant tissues is a widespread process accompanied by carbon fixation in biogenic minerals. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of CaCO₃ application to soil on the formation and localization of biominerals in the pericarp of fruits of Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. Johnst., as well as on the accumulation of carbon in minerals. B. arvensis seeds were sown in the soil treated with CaCO₃ at concentrations of 0.0 (0 Ca), 2.5 (2.5 Ca), 5.0 (5 Ca), 7.5 (7.5 Ca), and 10.0 (10 Ca) t ha⁻¹. As a result of CaCO₃ application, on average across all treatments, the increase in soil pH was 30%, and the calcium and silicon content in the soil increased by 60 and 39%, respectively. The fruit weight was 4, 28, 42, and 21% higher in 2.5 Ca, 5 Ca, 7.5 Ca, and 10 Ca plants than in 0 Ca plants. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed the presence of silica and calcium carbonate in the pericarp of B. arvensis fruits, but showed no significant differences in the localization of biominerals in the pericarps between the treatments. The content of biosilica (phytoliths) was lower in 2.5 Ca, 5 Ca, 7.5 Ca, and 10 Ca plants than in 0 Ca plants, respectively, by 11, 14, 25, and 19%. The content of organic carbon occluded in a unit mass of phytoliths was, on average, 49% higher in treated than in 0 Ca plants. The content of carbonate fraction in fruits was 13, 14, 20, and 21% higher in 2.5 Ca, 5 Ca, 7.5 Ca, and 10 Ca plants than in 0 Ca plants, reflecting the effect of soil calcium levels on carbonate content in B. arvensis pericarp. Thus, in the pericarp of fruits, the ratio of silica to carbonates changed towards a decrease in silica content and an increase in carbonate content as the availability of calcium in the soil increased. In summary, B. arvensis responds to increased soil calcium and soil pH by increasing carbon accumulation in biominerals formed in fruit pericarps, supporting the potential for variability in plant biomineralization characteristics under changing growth conditions. Full article

Yellow passion fruit production is frequently limited by water scarcity, necessitating biotechnological strategies to ensure seedling quality. This study investigated the synergistic effects of Bacillus aryabhattai (Auras^®) and silicon (Si) as mitigators of water deficit in Passiflora edulis seedlings. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse in Catolé do Rocha, PB, Brazil, using 4 dm³ plastic bags. A randomized block design was used with a 4 × 3 + 2 factorial scheme, testing four available water contents (AWC: 50, 60, 70, and 80%) combined with three mitigation strategies (Auras, Si, and Auras + Si), plus two additional controls (50% and 100% AWC). Water deficit severely compromised growth and soil biological activity; however, mitigation treatments significantly improved physiological and biochemical responses. When applied separately, B. aryabhattai inoculation enhanced the accumulation of photoprotective pigments (carotenoids) and secondary metabolites (flavonoids and anthocyanins) under severe drought, while individual Si application provided homeostatic stability to plant biomass, maintaining dry matter production at levels comparable to moderate irrigation. The Auras + Si combination was the most effective, promoting the highest membrane stability, pigment maintenance, and vigorous growth even under 50% AWC. Furthermore, this interaction optimized soil microbial biomass and reduced the metabolic quotient by 56.7% compared to the stress control. These findings demonstrate that the combined application of B. aryabhattai and Si effectively mitigates the negative impacts of water scarcity on the initial development of passion fruit seedlings and soil microbial activity. Full article

Silicon (Si) plays a crucial role in forest ecosystem functioning by influencing plant nutrient cycling, stress resistance, and biogeochemical processes; however, how Si and phytolith characteristics respond to environmental gradients in subtropical forests remains poorly understood. This study investigated the variations in silicon and phytolith characteristics in the leaves of Castanopsis fargesii across different elevations in the Guoyan Mountain Nature Reserve (Nanping City, China). It aimed to identify the dominant phytolith morphologies and their proportions, and to examine the effects of elevation, leaf nutrient elements, and soil physicochemical properties on these parameters. Plots were established at 100 m elevation intervals within the natural distribution range of Castanopsis fargesii forests in the Guoyan Mountain Nature Reserve, covering elevations from 600 to 900 m. Fresh leaves, leaf litter, and soil samples (0–20 cm depth) were collected to analyze fresh leaf silicon content and phytolith contents, leaf nutrient elements, and soil physicochemical properties. From 600 to 900 m elevation, silicon content in fresh leaves, leaf litter, SCDI, and phytolith content all exhibited consistent patterns, with significantly higher values at 900 m than at 600 m. The dominant phytolith morphologies in leaves were elongate, flabellate, acute, trapeziform psilate, and blocky. At higher elevations (900 m), the proportions of elongate, acute, and trapeziform psilate phytoliths were relatively higher, while flabellate and blocky forms were more abundant at lower elevations (600 m). However, elevation had minimal influence on the overall proportions of dominant phytolith morphologies. Leaf calcium (Ca) and soil properties—including available calcium, organic matter, and available silicon—were identified as major factors affecting fresh leaf silicon content and phytoliths. Elevation, leaf nutrient elements, and soil physicochemical properties significantly influenced silicon and phytoliths in Castanopsis fargesii leaves. Certain phytolith morphologies in the leaves may be indicative of environmental changes. Full article

Silicon is increasingly applied in agriculture to improve plant productivity under both abiotic and biotic stress constraints. Nevertheless, its mechanisms of action are often studied separately at the soil, plant, or microbiome levels, limiting a comprehensive understanding of its overall impact on agroecosystem functioning. This review proposes an integrated perspective of the soil–plant–microbiome continuum, linking silicon chemistry in soil solutions with the effects of silicon amendments on soil properties and the processes of uptake, transport, and deposition in the plants. We show that silicon bioavailability depends on maintaining a pool of dissolved silicon dominated by orthosilicic acid, regulated by mineral weathering, adsorption–desorption dynamics, polymerization, pH, iron and aluminum oxides, and organic matter. In soils, silicon inputs can improve structure, modulate acidity and cation exchange balances, influence nutrient availability, and reduce the mobility of certain metals. They may also affect enzymatic activities and microbial community composition. In plants, silicon uptake and transport, mediated by specific transporters, contribute to tissue silicification, the maintenance of leaf architecture, and the regulation of water, ionic, and redox homeostasis. These processes provide a basis for enhanced tolerance to drought, salinity, and metal toxicity, as well as biotic stress caused by pathogens and pests. Finally, we discuss key limitations to the agronomic application of silicon, including the diagnosis of the silicic status of soils, the choice of source and mode of application, and the genotypic variability of acquisition, as well as the need for multi-site tests and more robust mechanistic validations. This synthesis provides a coherent mechanistic framework to better define the conditions under which silicon can serve as a reliable tool for sustainable crop management under climate change. Full article

Intensive nitrogen (N) fertilization in Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J.Houz. forests increases productivity but also accelerates nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, posing a challenge to balancing forest yield with environmental sustainability. Silicon (Si), a beneficial element for bamboo, has emerged as a potential regulator of soil nitrogen (N) cycling, but its role in controlling N₂O emissions in forest ecosystems is not fully understood. In this study, we conducted a factorial pot experiment using P. edulis forest soil, with data collected over two years, but only the second-year results were analyzed, with controlled N (0, 80, and 160 mg kg⁻¹) and Si (0, 25, and 50 mg kg⁻¹) additions. The experiment lasted two years, but only the second-year data were used for analysis. We investigated how Si affected soil inorganic N dynamics, enzyme activities, plant growth, and cumulative N₂O emissions. Si addition significantly reduced N-induced N₂O emissions by up to 53%, with the strongest mitigation observed under moderate N input (p < 0.05, two-way ANOVA). This effect was associated with lower activities of AMO, NaR, and NiR, together with reduced availability of oxidized N substrates, indicating that Si mitigated N₂O emissions mainly by constraining upstream N transformation processes rather than by directly suppressing N₂O fluxes. Si addition also tended to promote plant biomass accumulation. These findings suggest that integrating Si fertilization into bamboo forest management may help improve nutrient use efficiency while mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Full article

Cunninghamia lanceolata Lamb. occupies a significant role in artificial forests globally, making its sustainable management crucial for terrestrial forest ecology. We experimentally determined soil physicochemical properties and the shrub and herb diversity of different age classes of Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations in Southwest China in 2023. The Mantel tests, RDA, and PLS-SEM were used to analyze the effects of stand factors on soil fertility and shrub and herb diversity. Shrub and herb diversity, as well as soil physicochemical properties, vary significantly across age classes in Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations. The maximum values of organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and available silicon were observed in the mature forest (36.62 g/kg, 1.90 g/kg, 0.53 g/kg, and 84.33 mg/kg, respectively), while the minimum values were found in the middle-aged forest (17.77 g/kg, 0.81 g/kg, 0.34 g/kg, and 53.70 mg/kg). TPH was the most influential stand factor. TBH was strongly correlated with RDA1 (r = 0.821, p < 0.001); soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and available silicon were negatively correlated with stand density. In this study, we propose a detailed age class-based thinning plan with strong implementability: cultivating large-diameter timber, maintaining soil fertility and understory plant diversity, and being friendly to forest farm management personnel. This approach could enhance biodiversity and ecosystem stability in Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations and serves as a reference for the sustainable management and operation of the Cunninghamia lanceolata forest ecosystem. Full article

Nitrogen (N) availability strongly regulates plant growth and metabolism, and its deficiency constrains plant development and yield. Silicon (Si) has been reported to enhance plant tolerance to multiple stresses; however, its influence on N metabolism in oats remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Si on cell wall composition and antioxidant responses in oat genotypes grown under N limitation. Two oat genotypes with contrasting N tolerance were hydroponically cultivated under N-deficient (0.5 mM) or N-sufficient (5 mM) conditions in combination with 0 or 2 mM Si. Growth parameters, N and Si uptake, cell wall structural components, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and tyrosine ammonia-lyase (TAL) activities, antioxidant responses, and oxidative damage were evaluated. In both genotypes grown under N deficiency, Si supply reduced shoot N content while enhancing Si accumulation. Moreover, Si application decreased lipid peroxidation in both genotypes under N-deficient conditions. In the N-sensitive genotype, Si increased cellulose deposition and antioxidant activity, whereas in the N-tolerant genotype, Si reduced lignin content and TAL activity. We conclude that Si supplementation improves the metabolic performance of oat genotypes under N-deficient conditions by modulating nutrient uptake, antioxidant responses, and cell wall composition. Full article

Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a major constraint on crop growth and productivity in acidic soils, affecting root development, nutrient uptake, and photosynthetic performance. The use of Si is a promising strategy to overcome the adverse effects of Al toxicity on species of agronomic interest. Between 2020 and 2026, 15 studies across nine species consistently demonstrated that silicon mitigated aluminum toxicity, regardless of their classification as silicon accumulators. In plants, Si mitigates Al toxicity through a combination of physical, chemical, and biochemical mechanisms that operate simultaneously. In the rhizosphere, Si interacts directly with Al³⁺ ions, favoring the formation of hydroxyaluminosilicates (HASs), which reduces the bioavailable fraction of Al. Evidence indicates that solution pH is a critical factor governing HAS formation, with minimal attenuation of Al toxicity observed at pH values below 4.5. Within the plant, Si modulates the antioxidant defense system by enhancing the activity of enzymes such as catalase, peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase, thereby reducing oxidative stress typically triggered by Al toxicity. Moreover, Si influences the biosynthesis of lignin and phenolic compounds with Al-chelating capacity, contributing to detoxification at the cellular level. In soybean and rice, Si supply substantially reduced Al deposition in the root apical cell wall, with decreases of approximately 52% and 41.3%, respectively. This reduction was consistently associated with improved root elongation, maintenance of root structural integrity, mitigation of cellular deformation, and preservation of root thickness and vascular organization. Although these mechanisms have been described, a comprehensive synthesis of studies published from 2020 to 2026 has been lacking, particularly regarding the integration of in-plant processes and species-specific responses. This review fills this gap by critically examining recent findings, highlighting the multifaceted role of Si in alleviating Al stress, and discussing implications for agronomic applications in acidic soils. Collectively, the evidence underscores Si as an effective tool to enhance plant tolerance to Al; however, most available evidence is derived from early plant developmental stages and hydroponic or highly controlled systems, which limits the direct extrapolation of these findings to soil and field conditions. Future advances will require studies under soil environments, accounting for species-specific responses, soil properties, management systems, and plant developmental stages. Full article

Phosphorus is a fundamental macronutrient, yet its low bioavailability in most soils makes phosphorus deficiency one of the most persistent constraints limiting global crop productivity. Although mineral fertilisation has long been the primary strategy for maintaining adequate P supply, inefficient fertiliser use and strong soil phosphorus fixation result in substantial losses. As a result, current research is shifting toward integrated phosphorus management approaches that combine optimised fertilisation techniques, unconventional phosphorus sources, and biological tools that mobilise soil-bound phosphorus. At the same time, silicon has emerged as a promising modulator of plant stress resilience, which can also influence phosphorus homeostasis. Silicon enhances plant physiological robustness by strengthening tissues, improving photosynthetic performance, and activating antioxidant pathways. Silicon may also modify phosphorus mobility in soils, promoting more efficient uptake and utilisation in plant tissues. This review synthesises current knowledge on physiological and molecular plant responses to phosphorus deficiency. It compares modern fertilisation strategies, ranging from precision fertilisation to unconventional phosphorus fertilisers. Particular attention is devoted to the emerging role of silicon in improving phosphorus availability and in enhancing crop plant phosphorus-use efficiency. The review concludes with future research directions that may help integrate silicon-based interventions into sustainable nutrient-management systems. Full article

This study investigated the effects of environmentally friendly soil amendments—processed red clay (PRC) and rice husk (RH)—on early establishment, growth characteristics, phytochemical accumulation, and soil chemical properties in wild-simulated ginseng (WSG; Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) cultivated under forest conditions. PRC was produced through alkali-assisted thermal processing to improve material homogeneity and enhance plant-available mineral components, particularly silicon. We hypothesized that the combined application of PRC and RH would improve soil chemical conditions and thereby support WSG growth and phytochemical accumulation under low-input cultivation systems. Four treatments were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with four replicates: non-treated control (NMNF), PRC alone (NMPRC), RH alone (RHNF), and combined PRC and RH (RHPRC). Growth responses were assessed in one-year-old and seven-year-old WSG, including germination rate, seedling vigor index, growth traits, photosynthetic pigment composition, total polyphenol content, ginsenoside profiles, and soil chemical properties. The RHPRC treatment significantly increased germination rate and seedling vigor compared to the non-treated control and showed consistently greater biomass accumulation across cultivation stages. RH application was primarily associated with improved early establishment and increased total polyphenol content, particularly during the early growth stage, whereas PRC application was associated with enhanced root development and age-dependent increases in selected ginsenosides. Soil analyses indicated that PRC application increased available phosphorus and exchangeable cation contents, with the most stable improvements observed under combined PRC and RH treatment. Overall, the results indicate that integrated mineral–organic soil management using PRC and RH can improve soil chemical propertise and support long-term growth and phytochemical accumulation in WSG cultivated under forest conditions. This approach offers a practical, low-input strategy for enhancing the sustainability of WSG cultivation while reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers. Full article

Silicon (Si) may benefit the growth and physiology of various cultivated species, especially under stress conditions. Here, we hypothesized that soil Si supplying as Ca₂SiO₄ would increase the drought tolerance and water use efficiency of young Coffea arabica L. (Arabica coffee) plants, by maintaining shoot water status and photosynthesis under low water availability. To test such a hypothesis, morphological and physiological (leaf water potential, leaf gas exchange, photochemical activity, chlorophyll content) traits of coffee plants were evaluated under varying soil Ca₂SiO₄ applications (0, 3000, 6000 kg ha⁻¹) and water availability. The chemical composition of plant tissues was evaluated under well-watered conditions after six months of Ca₂SiO₄ application, with fertilized plants showing higher concentrations of Ca (leaves and roots) and B (all plant organs) as compared to plants not supplied with Ca₂SiO₄ (control treatment). As there were no changes in Si concentration in plant organs under Ca₂SiO₄ application, our data indicate that the coffee species is a Si non-accumulator, or at least the cultivar ‘Catuaí Vermelho’ evaluated herein. Additionally, the photosynthetic capacity of coffee plants increased with 6000 kg Ca₂SiO₄ ha⁻¹ compared to the control under well-watered conditions, as given by increases in gross and net photosynthesis under light saturation, light saturation point, maximum RuBisCO carboxylation rate, maximum electron transport-dependent RuBP regeneration, and maximum rate of triose phosphate use. Such photosynthetic improvements underlined high leaf CO₂ assimilation, transpiration, carboxylation efficiency, and chlorophyll content in plants grown under Si supplying and well-watered conditions. The negative impact of water deficit on leaf gas exchange was alleviated by Ca₂SiO₄ application, but the instantaneous water use efficiency was maintained as similar in both water regimes, as expected for Si non-accumulator species. Morphologically, coffee stem diameter was increased under Ca₂SiO₄ application, regardless of water regime. In conclusion, our data revealed that high Ca₂SiO₄ doses benefit coffee performance and also suggest that the use of steel slag—an industrial byproduct rich in Ca₂SiO₄—can be considered as a sustainable practice for residue recycling in agriculture while improving C. arabica growth and physiology under varying water availability. Full article