Search Results (119)

Long-term energy system models often represent renewable energy technologies using aggregated potentials and average capacity factors, which may insufficiently reflect the spatial and technological heterogeneity of weather-dependent resources. This study develops and implements resource- and performance-based renewable energy supply curves for solar photovoltaics, onshore wind and offshore wind in the TIMES-PL energy system model for Poland. These supply curves are coupled with time-dependent techno-economic assumptions in TIMES-PL, allowing the modelled attractiveness of individual renewable resource classes to change across model years. The proposed approach combines spatial resource assessment, GIS-based data processing and differentiated hourly capacity factor profiles. The supply curves were constructed using data from the JRC ENSPRESO database, the PVGIS interface and the Copernicus Climate Data Store, with QGIS applied to classify renewable resource potential according to regional conditions, wind farm location and photovoltaic panel orientation. Two model scenarios were compared: a base scenario without supply curves and a scenario with implemented supply curves. The results show that incorporating spatial and technological constraints changes the modelled optimal capacity mix, although the overall system-level differences remain moderate. Accordingly, the results should be interpreted primarily in terms of installed capacity expansion rather than as a full comparison of system costs, electricity generation, unit dispatch or balancing effects. The total installed capacity in the supply-curve scenario is 1.91–3.44 GW higher than in the base scenario, corresponding to less than 3% of total system capacity. This increase results from the model being required to use renewable resource classes with lower capacity factors once the most favourable potentials are fully utilised. This study demonstrates that renewable energy supply curves can improve the representation of spatially differentiated renewable deployment options in long-term national energy system modelling. Full article

Multi-terminal voltage source converter-based high voltage direct current (VSC-MTDC) technology has become an efficient solution for grid integration of large-scale and long-distance offshore wind power. When onshore grid power fluctuations elevate the DC voltage of VSC-MTDC system, the surplus power causing the DC overvoltage issue can be effectively transferred through the power shifting method. To enhance the power shifting capability of receiving-end converters (RECs) and mitigate DC overvoltage, this paper proposes a coordinated power shifting strategy for VSC-MTDC based on the extended operation region. Firstly, the topology and control model of the VSC-MTDC system integrating offshore wind farms is established. Secondly, considering constraints containing apparent power, AC bus voltage, AC current, and voltage modulation ratio, the extended operation region model with regard to the overload capacity of REC is constructed. Furthermore, the coordinated active power shifting strategy for multiple converters is proposed to cope with onshore grid power fluctuations. Finally, simulation models of three-terminal and six-terminal VSC-MTDC systems are built using PSCAD V5 software. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy can exploit the system’s operational flexibility and reduce the risk of DC overvoltage, thus enhancing the disturbance immunity of VSC-MTDC system against onshore grid fluctuations. Full article

Green ammonia is increasingly recognised as a sustainability enabler for decarbonising fertiliser production, energy storage, and maritime transport, but offshore wind-to-ammonia pathways remain subject to significant economic and operational uncertainty. This study evaluated the techno-economic and sustainability performance of integrating power-to-ammonia (PtA) with an operating offshore wind farm in Denmark under three supply-chain scenarios (SCs): SC1, a fully offshore PtA with vessel-based ammonia transport; SC2, a fully offshore PtA with pipeline export; and SC3, a hybrid offshore–onshore configuration. An hourly dispatch framework allocated wind electricity between grid export and ammonia production by comparing incremental operating margins, while accounting for minimum-load, ramping, storage, and logistics constraints. Hourly wind generation and DK1 electricity-price data for 2020–2025 are used to construct a deterministic base case and a 30-year block-bootstrap Monte Carlo analysis. Sensitivity analysis is performed by varying electrolyser rated power over 10–200 MW and ammonia selling price over 1400–3200 €/tNH3, with additional breakeven-price estimation and flexibility cases based on reduced minimum-load requirements and faster ramping. A screening-level climate indicator was additionally reported by estimating potential CO₂ emissions avoided if delivered green ammonia displaces conventional natural-gas-based ammonia. Results indicated that SC3 is the most favourable configuration under the adopted assumptions, while overall project viability remained highly sensitive to PtA sizing, ammonia market value, operational flexibility, and the assumed infrastructure cost structure. Full article

This study compares the performance of two wind farm sites located in Northern Europe: an onshore site and an offshore area in the eastern Baltic Sea region. This study investigates the optimisation of wind farm performance within a fixed project area by maximising annual energy production (AEP) and increasing energy density. Three wake-loss scenarios (≤10%, ≤15%, and ≤20%) were examined to assess the sensitivity of layout optimisation to aerodynamic interaction constraints. Several layout configurations were analysed to reduce wake losses and enhance overall energy output. Wind conditions were assessed using NORA3 reanalysis data, and wake interactions were modelled using the Jensen wake model to estimate AEP. Both wind farms were further compared across key criteria, including cost, power generation efficiency, installation and maintenance requirements, and site availability. Offshore wind farms achieve 1.5–1.7 times higher energy density under similar spatial conditions. However, offshore levelised cost of energy (LCOE) remains roughly 25% higher due to higher capital and infrastructure costs, while onshore LCOE demonstrates better economic performance, driven by lower CAPEX and O&M expenses. The findings highlight the trade-offs between cost efficiency and wake-driven energy performance for onshore and offshore wind development in the eastern Baltic Sea region. Full article

Offshore wind energy is emerging as a vital component of the global transition to renewable energy, leveraging consistent wind conditions and higher power density compared to onshore systems. Integrating variable offshore wind power with hydrogen production via electrolysis provides a strategic pathway to convert surplus electricity into a storable and transportable energy carrier, thereby mitigating grid congestion, curtailment, and variability challenges. This review systematically examines the integration of offshore wind farms and hydrogen production technologies. Key components of the review include a comparative analysis of electrolyzer technologies, their suitability for offshore deployment, and the implications for energy storage and transport. The analysis employs a multi-step framework: (1) extensive search of the literature in scientific databases, (2) qualitative and quantitative assessment of system performance, and (3) synthesis of findings to identify trends and research gaps, enabling a thorough examination of technical challenges in the marine environment, and economic and policy barriers. The review highlights recent advancements, technical challenges, and economic considerations related to deployment of offshore wind-to-hydrogen systems. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the current state of offshore hydrogen production, identifies research gaps, and outlines policy recommendations to accelerate its deployment. Offshore wind-powered hydrogen emerges as a cornerstone of a resilient, low-carbon energy future. The systematic approach ensures actionable insights and robust conclusions, facilitating the alignment of technological advancements with global decarbonization goals. Full article

Leading-edge erosion (LEE) of wind-turbine blades, driven primarily by rain erosion, particulate erosion, and environmental ageing, remains one of the most pervasive causes of performance loss and maintenance cost in offshore and onshore wind farms. Self-healing coatings, which autonomously or semi-autonomously restore barriers and mechanical function after damage, promise a paradigm shift in blade protection by combining immediate impact resistance with in-service reparability. This review surveys the state of the art in self-healing coating technologies (intrinsic chemistries such as non-covalent interactions or dynamic covalent bonds; extrinsic systems including micro/nanocapsules and microvascular networks) and evaluates their suitability for anti-erosion, mechanical robustness, and multifunctional protection of leading edges. The outcomes of theoretical, experimental, modelling and field-oriented studies on the leading-edge protection and coating characterisation identify which self-healing concepts best meet the simultaneous requirements of toughness, adhesion, surface finish, and long-term durability of wind blade applications. Key gaps are highlighted, notably trade-offs between healing efficiency and mechanical toughness, challenges in large-area and sprayable application methods, and the need for standardised characterisation and testing of self-healing coating protocols. We propose a roadmap for targeted materials research, accelerated testing, and field trials. This review discusses recent studies to guide materials scientists and renewable-energy engineers toward promising routes to deployable, multifunctional, self-healing anti-erosion coatings, especially for wind-energy infrastructure. Full article

An accurate estimation of wind energy productivity is crucial for the success of energy transition strategies in developing countries such as Pakistan, for which the deployment of renewables is essential. This study investigates the use of machine learning and deep learning techniques to improve wind farm producibility assessments, tailored to the Pakistani context. SCADA data from a wind turbine in Türkiye were used to train and validate five predictive models. Among these, Random Forest proved most reliable, attaining a coefficient of determination of 0.97 on the testing dataset. The trained model was then employed to simulate the annual production of a 5 × 5 wind farm at two representative sites in Pakistan—one onshore and one offshore—that had been selected using ERA5 reanalysis data. In comparison with conventional estimates based on the theoretical power curve, the machine learning-based approach resulted in net energy predictions up to 20% lower. This is attributable to real-world effects such as wake and grid losses. The onshore site yielded an LCOE of 0.059 USD/kWh, closely aligning with the IRENA’s 2024 national average of approximately 0.06 USD/kWh, thereby confirming the reliability of the estimates. In contrast, the offshore site exhibited an LCOE of 0.120 USD/kWh, thus underscoring the need for incentives to support offshore development in Pakistan’s renewable energy strategy. Full article

Currently, Poland is witnessing a dynamic development of the offshore wind energy sector, which will be a key component of the national energy mix. While many international studies have addressed wind energy deployment, there is a lack of research that compares the energy and economic performance of both onshore and offshore wind farms under Polish climatic and spatial conditions, especially in relation to turbine spacing optimization. This study addresses that gap by performing a computer-based simulation analysis of three onshore spacing variants (3D, 4D, 5D) and four offshore variants (5D, 6D, 7D, 9D), located in central Poland (Stęszew, Okonek, Gostyń) and the Baltic Sea, respectively. The efficiency of wind farms was assessed in both energy and economic terms, using WAsP Bundle software and standard profitability evaluation metrics (NPV, MNPV, IRR). The results show that the highest NPV and MNPV values among onshore configurations were obtained for the 3D spacing variant, where the energy yield leads to nearly double the annual revenue compared to the 5D variant. IRR values indicate project profitability, averaging 14.5% for onshore and 11.9% for offshore wind farms. Offshore turbines demonstrated higher capacity factors (36–53%) compared to onshore (28–39%), with 4–7 times higher annual energy output. The study provides new insight into wind farm layout optimization under Polish conditions and supports spatial planning and investment decision making in line with national energy policy goals. Full article

Excessive reliance on traditional energy sources such as coal, petroleum, and gas leads to a decrease in natural resources and contributes to global warming. Consequently, the adoption of renewable energy sources in power systems is experiencing swift expansion worldwide, especially in offshore areas. Floating solar photovoltaic (FPV) technology is gaining recognition as an innovative renewable energy option, presenting benefits like minimized land requirements, improved cooling effects, and possible collaborations with hydropower. This study aims to assess the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) associated with floating solar initiatives in offshore and onshore environments. Furthermore, the LCOE is assessed for initiatives that utilize floating solar PV modules within aquaculture farms, as well as for the integration of various renewable energy sources, including wind, wave, and hydropower. The LCOE for FPV technology exhibits considerable variation, ranging from 28.47 EUR/MWh to 1737 EUR/MWh, depending on the technologies utilized within the farm as well as its geographical setting. The implementation of FPV technology in aquaculture farms revealed a notable increase in the LCOE, ranging from 138.74 EUR/MWh to 2306 EUR/MWh. Implementation involving additional renewable energy sources results in a reduction in the LCOE, ranging from 3.6 EUR/MWh to 315.33 EUR/MWh. The integration of floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems into green hydrogen production represents an emerging direction that is relatively little explored but has high potential in reducing costs. The conversion of this energy into hydrogen involves high final costs, with the LCOH ranging from 1.06 EUR/kg to over 26.79 EUR/kg depending on the complexity of the system. Full article

A diode-based rectifier (DR) is an attractive transmission technology for offshore wind farms, which reduces the volume of large bulk platforms. A novel parallel–series DC wind farm based on a distributed DR is proposed, which meets the requirements of high voltage and high power with an isolation capability from other units. The coupling mechanism between a modular multilevel converter (MMC) and a DR has been built, and the coordinate control strategy for the whole system has been proposed based on the MMC triple control targets with intermediate variables. Under the proposed control strategy, the system automatically operates at maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The feasibility of topology and the effectiveness of the control strategy are verified under start-up, power fluctuation, onshore alternating current (AC) fault, and direct current (DC) fault based on the power systems computer-aided design (PSCAD)/electromagnetic transients including direct current (EMTDC) simulation. Full article

Brazil has emerged as one of the global leaders in adopting renewable energy, standing out in the implementation of onshore wind energy and, more recently, in the development of future offshore wind energy projects. Onshore wind energy has experienced exponential growth in the last decade, positioning Brazil as one of the countries with the largest installed capacity in the world by 2023, with 30 GW. Wind farms are mainly concentrated in the northeast region, where winds are constant and powerful, enabling efficient and cost-competitive generation. Although in its early stages, offshore wind energy presents significant potential of 1228 GW due to Brazil’s extensive coastline, which exceeds 7000 km. Offshore wind projects promise greater generating capacity and stability, as offshore winds are more constant than onshore winds. However, their development faces challenges such as high initial costs, environmental impacts on marine ecosystems, and the need for specialized infrastructure. From a sustainability perspective, this article discusses that both types of wind energy are key to Brazil’s energy transition. They reduce dependence on fossil fuels, generate green jobs, and foster technological innovation. However, it is crucial to implement policies that foster synergy with green hydrogen production and minimize socio-environmental impacts, such as impacts on local communities and biodiversity. Finally, the article concludes that by 2050, Brazil is expected to consolidate its leadership in renewable energy by integrating advanced technologies, such as larger, more efficient turbines, energy storage systems, and green hydrogen production. The combination of onshore and offshore wind energy and other renewable sources could position the country as a global model for a clean, sustainable, and resilient energy mix. Full article

As the transition to clean energy accelerates, wind energy plays a crucial role in power generation, particularly in remote onshore and offshore locations. The integration of hybrid AC/DC networks with multi-terminal high-voltage direct current (MTHVDC) systems enhances power transfer capability and reliability. However, maintaining stable operation under both normal and disturbed conditions remains challenging. This paper applies the Flexible Universal Branch Model (FUBM) to hybrid AC/DC networks incorporating MTHVDC, providing a unified framework for power flow analysis. Unlike conventional methods that separately analyze AC and DC systems, the FUBM enables simultaneous modeling of both, improving computational efficiency and accuracy. Additionally, the paper introduces advanced control strategies to regulate active power transfer from offshore wind farms to onshore grids while maintaining voltage stability. The proposed approach is validated under steady-state and disturbance scenarios, including converter outages, within the CIGRE B4 system, which is a complex multi-terminal network interconnected with numerous converters. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the FUBM in ensuring stable operation, offering new insights into unified power flow modeling. This study lays the groundwork for future advancements in AC/DC power systems with MTHVDC integration. Full article

The energy transition requires substantial financial investments and the adoption of innovative technological solutions. The aim of this paper is to analyze the economic and technological aspects of implementing zero-emission strategies as a key component of the transition toward a carbon-neutral economy. The study assesses the costs, benefits, and challenges of these strategies, with a particular focus on wind farms and nuclear power, including small modular reactors (SMRs). The paper presents an in-depth examination of key examples, including onshore and offshore wind farms, as well as nuclear energy from both large-scale and small modular reactors. It highlights their construction and operating costs, associated benefits, and challenges. The investment required to generate 1 MW of energy varies significantly depending on the technology: onshore wind farms range from $1,300,000 to $2,100,000, offshore wind farms from $3,000,000 to $5,500,000, traditional nuclear power plants from $3,000,000 to $5,000,000, while small modular reactors (SMRs) require between $5,000,000 and $10,000,000 per MW. The discussion underscores the critical role of wind farms in diversifying renewable energy sources while addressing the high capital requirements and technical complexities of nuclear power, including both traditional large-scale reactors and emerging SMRs. By evaluating these energy solutions, the article contributes to a broader understanding of the economic and technological challenges essential for advancing a sustainable energy future. Full article

The increasing global demand for renewable energy has resulted in a high interest in wind power, with offshore wind farms offering better performance than onshore installations. Coastal nations are thus, actively developing offshore wind turbines, where monopiles are the predominant foundation type. Despite their widespread use, the effects of monopile installation methods on the overall foundation behaviour are not sufficiently yet understood. This study investigates how different pile installation procedures—jacked and impact-driven—affect the lateral capacity of monopile foundations under both monotonic and dynamic lateral loads, by comparing them with wished-in-place monopiles, the usual assumption in design, for which no soil disturbance due to installation is considered. Three finite element 3D models were employed to simulate these cases, i.e., wished-in-place monopile, jacked, and impact-driven pile, incorporating soil zoning in the latter cases to replicate the effects of the installation methods. Comparisons between all these models, when subject to lateral monotonic and cyclic loads, are presented and discussed in terms of displacements in the soil and horizontal normal stresses. Results reveal that these installation methods significantly influence soil reactions, impacting the lateral performance of monopiles under both monotonic and dynamic conditions. The impact-driven pile demonstrated the most significant influence on the monopile behaviour. These findings highlight the need for engineers to account for installation effects in the design of monopile foundations to enhance performance and reliability, as well as the optimisation of their design. Full article

Optimizing offshore wind power technology and reducing the levelized cost of electricity throughout the lifecycle are key measures for the large-scale development of offshore wind power, contributing significantly to the transition toward sustainable energy systems. However, compared to onshore wind power, the internal flow dynamics of offshore wind farms are more complex, which poses challenges for operation and maintenance. Therefore, there is an urgent need for updated, smarter, more efficient, and economic offshore intelligent operation control technologies to facilitate the large-scale development and utilization of offshore wind power. This paper approaches the topic from two perspectives, offshore wind turbines and offshore wind farms, introducing popular research directions and technical bottlenecks in these two related fields. This includes offshore wind turbine capacity development and fundamental technologies, offshore wind power forecasting technology, and offshore wind power operation and control technology, offshore intelligent operation and maintenance technology, as well as offshore wind power and integrated marine area utilization technology. Firstly, the challenges faced by the intensive development of offshore wind resources and operational environments are analyzed. Secondly, the challenges encountered in the aforementioned technological areas and their potential solutions are summarized. Finally, a systematic reflection and outlook on the large-scale development of offshore wind power are provided, reinforcing its critical role in achieving global sustainability goals. Full article