Search Results (201)

Camellia gauchowensis is widely distributed in South China. Field observations indicate that it produces abundant flowers but yields relatively few fruits under natural conditions. Understanding the intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of this low fruit output is essential both for revealing adaptive strategies in oil-tea camellia and informing cultivation improvement. In this study, we comprehensively investigated the flowering phenology, floral traits, pollen traits, pollinator activity, and breeding-system characteristics of C. gauchowensis. The results showed that C. gauchowensis produces perfect flowers but suffers from a narrow effective pollination window during its late-autumn-to-winter flowering period. Stomium-cell contaminants mixed with pollen grains may contribute to its poor pollen germination capacity. Cytochemical staining (TTC and FDA) significantly overestimated viability compared to in vitro germination results, and thus could not serve as a reliable substitute for functional pollen assessment. Both the outcrossing index and the pollen–ovule ratio indicated that C. gauchowensis exhibits a reproductive tendency toward outcrossing, with its sexual reproduction largely dependent on pollinators. Among the recorded floral visitors, Apis cerana represents the most promising pollinator candidate owing to its numerical dominance, frequent stigma contact, and superior cold-tolerance capacity. Our results reveal that reproductive success in C. gauchowensis is collectively constrained by multiple factors: a narrow effective pollination window, low pollen viability, winter-driven pollinator scarcity, and its reproductive tendency toward outcrossing. This study elucidates the coupled intrinsic–extrinsic mechanisms underlying low fruit output in this winter-flowering oil-tea camellia and provides theoretical underpinnings for pollination management and high-yield cultivation of this economically important woody crop. Full article

Apple maturation involves profound metabolic reconfiguration, yet systematic trade-offs among bioactive, primary, and volatile metabolites remain unclear, particularly under highland cultivation. We examined nine apple cultivars spanning early-, mid-, and late-maturing groups grown under identical high-altitude conditions (1950 m). Early-maturing cultivars exhibited superior antioxidant activity, with Huashuo (HS) achieving the highest ABTS•⁺ radical scavenging (1268.5 μg Trolox/g) and flavonoid (18.9 mg/g) levels. Conversely, late cultivars accumulated significantly more starch (31.5 mg/g in HFS) and total soluble sugars (121.5 mg/g in Ruixue), whereas sucrose peaked in the early Jinyu (94.4 mg/g). PCA and OPLS-DA models robustly separated maturity groups (predictive variance 65.4%). Late-maturing cultivars exhibited reduced volatile abundance, with 338 compounds downregulated versus only 32 upregulated (VIP > 1, p < 0.05). Compounds with high predicted aroma impact (rOAV ≥ 1), including 2,6-nonadienal (Log₂FC = −3.21) and isobutyl isovalerate (−3.55), were severely depleted, while butanoic acid propyl ester (5.01) increased. Flavor mapping suggested a marked loss of “green” and “fruity” notes in late cultivars. Overall, highland-grown apples exhibit a fundamental metabolic trade-off favoring starch accumulation, a trait commonly associated with storability in late-maturing cultivars. These findings suggest candidate volatile biomarkers for breeding programs that warrant further validation and highlight the potential need for postharvest metabolic interventions to preserve the natural aroma of late-maturing apples. Full article

Wood vinegar (WV), also known as pyroligneous acid, is the aqueous condensate produced during lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis, generated alongside biochar and non-condensable gases. In forest biorefineries, it represents a promising value-added coproduct capable of transforming forestry and agroforestry residues into a multifunctional bioproduct. Its composition, dominated by water, organic acids, phenolic compounds, aldehydes, and ketones, confers antimicrobial, antioxidant, biostimulant, herbicidal, and preservative properties. This review critically examines WV production, chemical composition, purification strategies, mechanisms of action, and applications, explicitly distinguishing evidence-based uses from prospective ones. Current evidence supports applications in agriculture, wood preservation, environmental management, and forestry, including forest nursery production and clonal propagation of Eucalyptus and Pinus. However, the literature remains fragmented by compositional variability, non-standardized terminology, limited mechanistic understanding, and scarce long-term toxicological and techno-economic assessments. WV holds significant potential for sustainable biomass valorization and circular bioeconomy strategies. Realizing this potential requires harmonized analytical protocols, standardized formulations, rigorous mechanistic studies, life-cycle assessments, and regulatory frameworks that support the transition of this heterogeneous pyrolysis byproduct into a reliable commodity within integrated forest biorefineries. Full article

Cryptomeria japonica var. sinensis Miquel (Chinese cedar) is an ecologically and economically vital evergreen conifer endemic to China. Renowned for its rapid growth and superior timber quality, the species has evolved from a traditional forestry resource into a multifaceted model species for phytochemistry and biotechnology. This review synthesizes recent advancements in its biology, chemical profiling, industrial utilization, and molecular breeding. Taxonomically and morphologically distinct from the Japanese variety, Chinese cedar exhibits robust physiological plasticity and complex transcriptomic responses to abiotic stresses. Phytochemically, the tree is a prolific reservoir of volatile essential oils, complex terpenoids, and flavonoids. These bioactive secondary metabolites demonstrate potent antimicrobial, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, driving broad applications in modern pharmacology and sustainable agrochemicals. Industrially, the timber is increasingly utilized in the fabrication of advanced engineered structural composites and circular bioenergy production. Concurrently, breakthrough biotechnological platforms including a chromosome-level reference genome assembly, multi-omics, somatic embryogenesis, and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing have advanced molecular breeding, accelerating the targeted development of climate-resilient and non-pollen-producing (hypoallergenic) elite cultivars. However, as global climate change and historical habitat fragmentation severely threaten ancient wild populations, this review advocates for integrated in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. By identifying critical research gaps in translational pharmacology, precision gene editing, and comparative genomics, this review provides a comprehensive foundation for understanding the biology, phytochemistry, biotechnology, and utilization of this invaluable botanical resource, offering a strategic roadmap for its sustainable management and commercial valorization. Full article

Pines (genus Pinus) are a diverse group of conifers widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, comprising more than 110 species worldwide. In Europe, pines are a defining component of forests, occupying environments that range from dry Mediterranean lowlands to high-elevation alpine zones. They support a wide spectrum of ecosystem services, from timber and non-wood products to protection, biodiversity, and cultural values. In this review, we bring together ecological traits, silvicultural practices, and management considerations for ten European pine species. This review examines ten major European pine species, including Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), maritime pine (P. pinaster), stone pine (P. pinea), Aleppo pine (P. halepensis), black pine (P. nigra), mountain pine (P. mugo), Swiss stone pine (P. cembra), Turkish pine (P. brutia), Bosnian pine (P. heldreichii), and Macedonian pine (P. peuce). Together, these species span a wide range of European environments, with Pinus sylvestris showing the broadest distribution. Despite the extensive literature on pine species, information on their ecological, silvicultural, and management attributes remains fragmented across disciplines. To bridge this gap, this review draws on an expert-curated core of scientific and technical literature complemented by a structured literature search adapted from the PRISMA framework, compiling within a single framework their main ecological and silvicultural characteristics, altitudinal range, growth patterns, stand diversity, and management practices and the principal goods and ecosystem services they provide. The comparative analysis highlighted distinct functional groups among European pines, illustrating contrasting adaptive strategies across environmental gradients, with altitudinal distributions ranging from sea level to 2400 m. Mediterranean species, such as P. halepensis, P. pinaster, and P. brutia, generally showed higher drought and fire adaptation, whereas mountain taxa such as P. cembra, P. mugo, and P. heldreichii displayed greater cold tolerance but increased vulnerability due to restricted climatic niches and slow regeneration. Broadly distributed species, such as P. sylvestris and P. nigra, exhibited intermediate ecological strategies, with responses strongly influenced by regional climatic conditions. By integrating evidence on distribution patterns, functional traits, growth patterns, and management practices, this review provides a comparative framework to support adaptive forest management and informed species selection, helping to safeguard forest functions and their associated benefits under ongoing climate change. Full article

Uncaria rhynchophylla is an important medicinal plant widely used for treating neurological and cardiovascular diseases. However, current utilization primarily focuses on its hooked stems (Uncariae Ramulus cum Uncis), while its by-products remain underutilized. A systematic understanding of its cultivation and whole-plant utilization is lacking, limiting its industrial and ecological potential. We comprehensively evaluated the cultivation, processing, by-product utilization, and ecological value of U. rhynchophylla within an industrial crop framework. This review synthesizes recent advances in agronomic practices, phytochemical composition, environmental influences, and product development strategies by integrating findings from experimental and applied studies. The hooked stems are rich in alkaloids such as rhynchophylline, while other plant parts contain valuable active compounds suitable for bio-based products, including functional foods and medicinal materials. Environmental factors (light, soil, altitude) and cultivation strategies significantly influence yield and active compound accumulation. Whole-plant utilization and by-product valorization can enhance resource-use efficiency and economic returns. U. rhynchophylla has significant potential as an industrial medicinal crop. Integrating optimized cultivation, processing technologies, and by-product utilization strategies supports sustainable production and rural development. However, limitations include standardization and limited large-scale validation. Future research should focus on mechanistic studies, industrial-scale processing, and development of high-value products to promote a circular bioeconomy. Full article

B-BOX (BBX) transcription factors regulate plant growth and drought tolerance, whereas comprehensive characterization of BBX gene families in gymnosperms remains scarce. We identified 13 TgBBXs in Torreya grandis at the genome-wide level, and phylogenetic analysis grouped them into five subgroups consistent with the conserved classification of plant BBX members. Promoter analysis revealed abundant light hormone and stress related cis-elements, and the TgBBXs displayed distinct expression patterns across various tissues and reproductive developmental stages. PEG-triggered drought decreased leaf chlorophyll, accompanied by increased root H₂O₂, APX and POD levels. Transcriptome data showed obvious tissue-specific expression and organ-dependent drought responses; most of TgBBX5–TgBBX12 were continuously upregulated in leaves under PEG treatment, whereas several members declined in roots. WGCNA further indicated that the MEturquoise module, which contained most TgBBXs, was closely associated with chlorophyll accumulation and antioxidant responses. Among these genes, TgBBX2, TgBBX7, and TgBBX13 with module membership over 0.9 are putative hub genes, and their associated genes enrich in photosynthesis and antioxidant pathways. This study systematically characterized the BBX family in T. grandis for the first time and identified key drought-responsive genes, providing valuable resources for drought-tolerant molecular breeding of this economically important gymnosperm. Full article

The Aquilegia ecalcarata (A. ecalcarata) complex is a valuable evolutionary model for studying parallel evolution, introgression, and incomplete lineage sorting. Deciphering this complexity requires evidence from multiple genomic compartments. While substantial nuclear and chloroplast resources exist, mitochondrial genome data, which capture the maternally inherited evolutionary history, have been absent for this group. Using long-read sequencing data, this study assembled and comprehensively characterized the mitochondrial genomes of five representative taxa within the A. ecalcarata complex. Comparative analyses reveal that the two spurless lineages, A. ecalcarata clade A and clade B, do not form a monophyletic group based on mitochondrial phylogeny. Instead, each clusters with a different spurred relative, consistent with the independent evolution of spur loss. This finding is further supported by collinearity patterns, gene content, and lineage-specific MTPT distributions. By providing the first mitochondrial genomic resource for this group, this study offers independent organellar evidence for the multiple origins of spurless phenotype in the A. ecalcarata complex. Full article

Mushrooms, forest fruits and game meat represent three major categories of forest foods in Czechia. This study compares their acquisition mechanisms, market visibility and value-chain positions and provides reference-year, category-specific physical estimates and stage-specific indicative economic values. The analysis integrates pooled national survey data on mushrooms and forest fruits from 2021 to 2025 (N = 5025), a 2022 survey extension on game meat (N = 1000), qualitative interviews with 12 stakeholders in the Czech game-meat value chain conducted by the research team between 2023 and 2024, and official hunting statistics. In the 2024 reference year, mushrooms and forest fruits were estimated through household-collected quantities, whereas game meat was estimated as gross carcass-weight equivalent at the primary procurement stage. The three categories together represented an indicative stage-specific economic value of approximately EUR 324.3 million, but their physical quantities are interpreted as product-specific estimates rather than as directly equivalent units of provisioning value. Mushrooms showed the strongest household-collection profile: 70.4% of respondents reported collection and 20.1% reported purchase. Forest fruits displayed a more mixed acquisition pattern, with particularly high purchase shares for blueberries and raspberries. Collection and purchase were largely independent for mushrooms, whereas complementary relationships prevailed among forest fruits. Game meat had an indicative primary procurement value of EUR 33.57 million and reflected a regulated hunting-based value chain. The findings identify a differentiated forest-food system in which socio-economic significance is shaped by product-specific relationships among household acquisition, market access, value-chain organisation and stage-specific value creation. Full article

Pinus pinaster Ait. forests have potential for resin tapping, a forestry activity that complements timber production and may increase the profitability of maritime pine stands. However, the viability of this co-production remains uncertain due to the potential effects of resin tapping on wood characteristics. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of resin tapping on the wood characteristics of maritime pine, in order to infer possible changes in wood quality, its utilisation, and, consequently, its value. The study was based on samples collected in Tresminas from resin-tapped trees (37.2 ± 6.0 years old and mean height of 15.8 ± 1.4 m) subjected to the traditional Portuguese resin tapping method for four consecutive years, and from non-resin-tapped trees (37.5 ± 8.9 years old and mean height of 14.1 ± 2.2 m). Samples were collected from different positions along the stem of resin-tapped trees (incision side, opposite side, and 50 cm above the last tapping incision) and compared with samples obtained from non-resin-tapped trees. Wood density, modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), extractives content, growth ring width and the number and area of resin ducts were evaluated. The effects of resin tapping on wood properties were assessed by comparing resin-tapped and non-resin-tapped trees, as well as different sampling positions within resin-tapped trees, using linear mixed-effects models. Mean comparisons were performed using Tukey’s test at a 95% significance level. No significant effects of resin tapping were observed on MOE or MOR between resin-tapped and non-resin-tapped trees. Wood from the incision side showed higher density (0.596 g·cm⁻³) and higher extractives content (7.49%). Resin-tapped trees produced a greater number of resin ducts after tapping; however, their area did not change. No significant differences were found in growth ring width between resin-tapped (1.75 mm) and non-resin-tapped trees (1.80 mm), although resin-tapped trees presented slightly narrower rings on average. Resin tapping in P. pinaster did not promote relevant changes in wood properties that would compromise its mechanical and physical performance. Although some alterations were detected, these were predominantly localised and restricted to the region adjacent to the tapping incision. Full article

Drought stress imposes oxidative damage on plants, yet the tissue-specific roles of salicylic acid (SA) in modulating phenolic metabolism remain poorly understood in woody species. Using Ilex rotunda seedlings, we investigated whether exogenous SA (100 µM) mitigates drought-induced oxidative damage and reshapes phenolic profiles in different tissues. Drought alone increased leaf total phenolics by 32% but depleted root phenolics by 29%, whereas combined drought + SA (DSA) treatment partially restored root phenolic levels, coinciding with elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) (2.2-fold in leaves, 2.6-fold in roots) and H₂O₂. Leaf antioxidant capacity increased under drought (DPPH by 73%, •OH by 33%), whereas root DPPH declined by 27% despite a 26% rise in •OH scavenging. SA alone induced mild oxidative responses and selectively upregulated caffeoylquinic and galloyl derivatives, notably 1-Caffeoylquinic acid (log₂FC = 6.38) in leaves. DSA treatment mitigated oxidative damage—reducing leaf MDA by 44% and root H₂O₂ by 38%. Metabolomics revealed tissue-specific reprogramming leaves accumulated dicaffeoylshikimic acid (log₂FC = 10.66) and trilobatin D (log₂FC = 11.18) under DSA, whereas roots showed contrasting patterns with up-accumulation of vanillate (log₂FC = 5.77) and suppression of 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (log₂FC = −7.21) under drought, with stronger metabolic reprogramming in leaves than roots. Our findings indicate that SA-mediated drought tolerance is associated with tissue-specific phenolic reprogramming, identifying candidate indicators that advance the mechanistic understanding of woody plant resilience to drought. These results provide a framework for translating metabolomic signatures into practical strategies for stress mitigation in medicinal perennials facing climate change. Full article

In Chile, Eucalyptus globulus stands out as a significant forest species, yielding around 2 million tonnes of bark; this by-product is a valuable source of phenolic compounds. This research evaluated the valorization of E. globulus bark using alkali-assisted extraction (AAE) and obtained extracts intended to protect the wood against fungal degradation and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The chemical and thermal properties of the extracts were characterized using total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant capacity, FTIR spectroscopy, LC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS, and thermal analyses (TGA and DSC). Pine wood samples were impregnated using the Bethel process, and their absorption, retention, leaching, UV resistance, gloss, and antifungal efficacy were evaluated. The AAE showed an extraction yield of 8.79%, almost double that of aqueous extraction, with a phenolic content of 970 mg GAE/100 g dry bark and good antioxidant capacity. The MS/MS analysis tentatively identified low-molecular-weight organic acids, phenolic acids, a hydrolyzable tannin derivative, ellagic acid, methylated flavonol glycosides, and an iridoid non-phenolic metabolite. Thermal analysis indicated greater stability of the alkaline extracts, with a mass loss of less than 10% up to 200 °C, and significant degradation between 220 and 300 °C. Leaching tests showed a lower release of polyphenols from alkali-treated wood, indicating reduced mobility and/or greater retention of the extractives within the wood structure. Biological assays demonstrated effective inhibition of stain fungi and strong resistance to brown rot. Furthermore, UV aging tests showed less color change (Delta E*) and greater resistance to surface degradation. These results demonstrate the potential of alkaline extracts from E. globulus bark as sustainable additives for wood protection. Full article

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne) is an economically important vegetable crop in the family Cucurbitaceae. However, existing genetic transformation systems for pumpkin are limited by cultivar dependence, low efficiency, lengthy regeneration, and poor stability. In this study, we developed and optimized an Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated hairy root induction system for pumpkin leaves under non-tissue culture conditions, using the cultivar ‘Jintian No. 1’ as the experimental material. Systematic comparisons were performed across multiple parameters, including infection method, duration, bacterial strain, bacterial concentration, seedling age, and leaf position. The optimized transformation conditions were as follows: the second fully expanded leaf of 30-day-old seedlings, A. rhizogenes strain K599 at an optical density (OD₆₀₀) of 0.8, and direct immersion for 15 min. Under these optimized conditions, the positive hairy root induction rate reached 89.58%. Moreover, the system successfully induced positive hairy roots in all tested pumpkin cultivars. In summary, this study establishes a highly efficient and practical hairy root induction system for pumpkin leaves, providing a robust platform for root-specific gene functional analysis and rapid validation of candidate genes related to root development and stress responses in pumpkin. Full article

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) constitute an important component of forest-based production systems and biomass supply chains in Türkiye. Despite their growing economic and ecological significance, the long-term structural dynamics of NTFP production remain insufficiently understood. This study examines temporal and structural changes in NTFP production in Türkiye during the period 1988–2024 using official production statistics and production support data. The analysis applies a quantitative framework that combines linear trend analysis, Shannon diversity and Herfindahl–Hirschman concentration indices, volatility measures based on the coefficient of variation, and regression models to evaluate production trends, structural transformations, stabilization patterns, and the effectiveness of production support mechanisms. The findings reveal a non-linear and multi-phase development pattern characterized by diversification and production growth after 2000, followed by increasing concentration and greater production volatility after 2018. Although total production volume increased substantially, portfolio diversity declined over time, and dependence on a limited number of high-volume products intensified, indicating growing structural vulnerability within the system. In addition, production support mechanisms showed a weak and heterogeneous relationship with production outcomes. A limited contextual comparison with Lithuania’s multifunctional NTFP system is also included to position the findings within a broader European context. Overall, the results suggest that increasing production alone is insufficient to ensure long-term system stability. Instead, diversification-oriented and risk-sensitive resource management strategies that account for production risks, regional disparities, and product heterogeneity are essential for developing sustainable and resilient NTFP production systems. Full article

Although Non-Wood Forest Products can offer interesting economic opportunities for rural communities, little is known about their commercial harvesters. Our work aims to shed light on the labour profiles, their accessibility to new entrants, and attractiveness for future green jobs. Through in-depth interviews, we explored the five-capitals profile of commercial resin, cork, mastic foliage, chestnut, pine nut, and wild mushroom harvesters in Spain. We found either freelance harvesters or entrepreneurs with a small gang. Our data show a typical male collector, who started the activity through his social networks (Social Capital), and whose origin depends on the product and Spanish region. Some commercial female harvesters were found in mushroom, chestnut and resin harvesting. Social constructs around the masculinization of these activities may explain their limited attractiveness for women. The ratio of non-Spanish commercial harvesters correlates with the weight of migrants in the analysed regions. Only a subgroup of resin harvesters devotes most of their year to this single activity. The rest complement NWFP income with a main forestry (cork and pinenut) or non-forestry occupation (mushroom, chestnut and mastic). For the latter products, access to Natural Capital was found to be crucial for job progress, as non-landowners require administrative and/or negotiation capacities to secure harvesting permits. Human Capital differs across NWFPs, from simpler skills such as recognising marketable produce and handling easy tools (mushroom, chestnuts, pine nut ground gathering and mastic), to complex abilities needed to balance efficiency with minimising tree damage (in resin tapping, pinenut shaking, and cork extraction). Such specialised tools and machinery (Built Capital) typically act as a barrier to entry and advancement. These profiles are expected to help decision-makers to design instruments promoting and regulating commercial harvesting, and tackle their risks: local landowners in allocating harvesting rights to external collectors; regional policymakers as competent authorities in forest legislation; and state-level administration concerning cultural, fiscal and labour-permit aspects. Full article