Search Results (204)

Biomaterials are engineered to interact with biological systems for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes. Among them, natural biomaterials offer important advantages over many synthetic polymers, including intrinsic biocompatibility, non-toxicity and biodegradability. Silk fibroin, a fibrous protein derived mainly from Bombyx mori cocoons, has re-emerged as a particularly versatile platform because it combines favourable mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties with aqueous processing and tuneable degradation. In this review, we first summarise the key structural, physicochemical and functional properties of regenerated silk fibroin, including its mechanical behaviour, thermal stability, dielectric and piezoelectric response, optical transparency and low autofluorescence. We then describe how extraction and regeneration protocols are used to produce defined material formats—fibres and nanofibrous mats, porous 3D scaffolds and hydrogels, sub-micron particles, thin films and microstructured devices—and outline major functionalisation strategies, ranging from physical blending and encapsulation to covalent chemistry, genetic engineering of recombinant silk variants, and enzyme-mediated conjugation approaches. Building on this foundation, we critically examine biomedical applications of silk fibroin with a particular emphasis on (i) hybrid silk–fluorophore systems for bioimaging and biosensing (nanodiamonds, quantum dots and organic dyes), (ii) optical fibre, wearable and edible sensors for health and food monitoring, (iii) wound dressings and wound-sensing platforms, and (iv) tissue engineering scaffolds and drug-delivery depots. Finally, we discuss current limitations, including process variability, the trade-offs introduced by blending and cross-linking, and the challenges posed by non-degradable inorganic fillers and clinical translation. Together, these perspectives highlight silk fibroin’s potential and constraints as a multifunctional biomaterial for next-generation biomedical devices and theranostic systems. Full article

Narrowing the bandgap of wide-bandgap oxides and controlling defects are crucial ways of enhancing the properties of functional materials. One important way to develop multifunctional hybrids is to transform non-conjugated polymers into oxide nanocomposites. To expand the broad-spectrum applications of wide-bandgap oxides, ZnO-based nanocomposites were synthesised using cross-linking non-conjugated polymers via one-pot carbonisation. As polymer-derived nanocomposites exhibit significant scattering noise, the grain boundaries of the nanocomposites were filled using additives that have an electronic effect. Optimising the grain boundaries in this way significantly decreased the scattering noise, avoided large fluctuations in baseline current and enhanced the interfacial charge transfer in broadband light spectral regions. The electronic effects of the used additives can effectively passivate defects in the polymer-derived oxide nanocomposites’ aggregation state, improving photocurrent extraction. Even after storage at room temperature for two years, the optimised nanocomposite exhibited favourable photocurrent signals when excited using typical light sources at wavelengths of 650, 808, 980 and 1064 nm. This nanocomposite has potential applications in interdisciplinary fields involving light harvesting. This study provides a simple, environmentally friendly strategy to creating multifunctional hybrids using non-conjugated polymers as precursors. Full article

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are ~19–25-nt post-transcriptional regulators whose dysregulation promotes hallmark cancer traits and therapy resistance. This review synthesizes translational principles for developing miRNA therapeutics in oncology, integrating miRNA biology and target engagement with delivery design and clinical experience. We summarize key determinants that shape efficacy and safety, including sequence and chemistry choices, biodistribution and intracellular delivery, dosing strategy, and biomarker-informed patient selection. We compare the main therapeutic modalities, miRNA mimics and inhibitors, and evaluate leading delivery approaches relevant to cancer, including lipid-based systems, polymer-based carriers and conjugates, and extracellular vesicle-inspired platforms, highlighting trade-offs in stability, specificity, immune activation, and tumor exposure. Early clinical programs such as MRX34, TargomiR/MesomiR-1, and cobomarsen, together with experience from non-oncology indications, illustrate both opportunities and practical constraints on tolerability and regimen optimization. We conclude with pragmatic priorities for the field, including standardized analytics for isoforms and target engagement, PK/PD- and biomarker-guided dose selection, and rational combination strategies to safely integrate miRNA-based interventions into precision oncology. Full article

Early and accurate diagnosis is critical for disease surveillance, therapeutic guidance, and relapse monitoring. Sensor arrays have emerged as a multi-analyte detection tool via non-specific interactions to generate unique fingerprint patterns with high levels of selectivity and discrimination. Conjugated polymers (CPs), with their tunable π-conjugated backbones, exceptional light-harvesting capability, and efficient “molecular wire effect,” provide an ideal and versatile material platform for such arrays, enabling significant optical signal amplification and high sensitivity. This review systematically outlines the rational design and functionalization strategies of CPs for constructing high-performance sensor arrays. It delves into the structure–property relationships that govern their sensing performance, covering main-chain engineering, side-chain functionalization, and microenvironmental regulation. Representative applications are discussed, including non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, bacterial and viral infections, Alzheimer’s disease, and diabetic nephropathy, highlighting the remarkable diagnostic capabilities achieved through tailored CP materials. Finally, future perspectives are focused on novel material designs and device integration to advance this vibrant field. Full article

The reliance on unstable hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) adversely affects the robustness and simplicity of chemiluminescence (CL)-based immunoassays. We report a novel external H₂O₂-free Fenton CL system integrated into a highly sensitive non-enzymatic immunoassay for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein, utilizing cuprous–polyethylenimine–lipoic acid nanoflowers (Cu(I)-PEI-LA-Ab NF) as a non-enzymatic tag. The signaling polymer (PEI-LA) was synthesized via EDC/NHS coupling, which conjugated approximately 550 LA units to the PEI backbone. This polymer formed antibody-conjugated NF with various metal ions, and the Cu(I)-based variant was selected for its intense and sustained CL with luminol. The mechanism relies on an in situ Fenton reaction, in which dissolved oxygen is reduced by Cu(I) to H₂O₂, which reacts with oxidized Cu(II), producing hydroxyl radicals that oxidize luminol. Direct calibration of the SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein fixed on microplate wells demonstrated excellent linearity in the range of 0.01–3.13 ng/mL (LOD = 3 pg/mL). In a final competitive immunoassay format for samples spiked with the antigen, a decreasing CL signal that correlated with increasing antigen concentration was obtained in the range of 0.1–20.0 ng/mL, achieving excellent recoveries that were favorable compared with those of the sandwich ELISA kit, establishing this H₂O₂-independent platform as a powerful and robust tool for clinical diagnostics. Full article

White organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) offer a promising solution for next-generation lighting technologies and their ability to emit white light through various mechanisms make them an attractive option for illumination and display applications. Here, we design and prepare a series of N,N-difluorenevinylaniline-based small molecules and polymer, and realize white OLEDs based on these luminescent materials with combined blue monomer emission and orange electromer emission upon electronic excitation in the solution-processed devices. Impressively, the single-component nonconjugated polymer exhibits the best device performance, because the nonconjugated structure favors good solubility of the polymers, while the conjugated starburst unit functions as highly luminescent fluorophore in both single molecular and aggregated structures for the blue and orange emissions, respectively. Specifically, the non-doped solution-processed OLEDs achieve warm white electroluminescence with a maximum luminance of 1806 cd/m² and a maximum external quantum efficiency of 2.63%. And, the OLEDs based on the monomer also exhibit white electroluminescence with Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage coordinates of (0.30, 0.32). These results highlight a promising strategy for the material design and preparation of single-component nonconjugated polymers with rich emissive behaviors in solid states towards efficient and solution-processable white OLEDs. Full article

Developing organic photothermal agents that are highly stable and have tunable electronic properties is important for advancing low-invasive cancer therapy. In this study, we present the synthesis and evaluation of three conjugated photothermal agents inspired by non-fullerene Y-series acceptors: the small molecule BTPT-OD, as well as two of its polymer derivatives with regular (r-BTPT) and irregular (ir-BTPT) structures. All of the compounds absorb light effectively in the red and near-infrared spectral ranges, with absorption maxima from 734 to 746 nm, and form stable nanoparticles (NPs) via nanoprecipitation, ranging in size from 13 to 39 nm. NPs exhibited negative surface charges, with ζ-potentials of −12.9, −15.5, and −17.9 mV for BTPT-OD, r-BTPT, and ir-BTPT NPs, respectively. Irradiation at a wavelength of 730 nm revealed that r-BTPT and ir-BTPT polymer NPs exhibited a 22- to 40-fold greater phototoxicity against A-549, Sk-Br-3, and MCF-7 human carcinoma cells than the non-polymeric analogue BTPT-OD. The measured photothermal conversion efficiencies ranged from 24 to 27 ± 5%. At the same time, the intracellular ROS generation quantified by the 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay was low, allowing us to propose heat-mediated photothermal therapy as a more significant cell death predictor than ROS-mediated photodynamic therapy. This work is one of the first to compare small and polymeric non-fullerene acceptor materials for phototherapy purposes, demonstrating the advantages of using polymers. Full article

To increase the use of the near-infrared (NIR) light from In₂O₃, a nanocomposite of In₂O₃/reduced graphene oxide was synthesised. To improve adhesion to the substrates, a small amount of PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) was added to the nanocomposite. Results showed that adding an appropriate amount of PVA to the nanocomposite remarkably enhanced the ability to extract photogenerated carriers due to interface optimisation based on the grain boundary filling with PVA and charge tunnelling effects. The nanocomposites exhibited photoconductive switching responses from the visible light region to the near-infrared range. Meanwhile, the organic/inorganic hybrid coating on silk fibres exhibited mutual conversion of positive and negative photoconductivity, as well as electrical switching responses to applied strain. Furthermore, it was found that a photoelectric signal could still be determined with zero bias after the In₂O₃/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite had been stored for over four years. This reflects that the nanocomposites have an internal electric field that promotes the transfer of photogenerated carriers and prevents the recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes. Similar results were also obtained by adding an appropriate amount of other non-conjugated polymers, such as dendrimers. Physical mechanisms are discussed. This study provides reference values for the development of multifunctional organic/inorganic hybrids integrating non-conjugated polymer components to enhance specific properties. Full article

Nanogels provide unique opportunities for stabilizing fragile enzymes through soft, hydrated polymer networks. Here, we report the development of a glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-loaded nanogel (GPxNG) engineered via a mild “grafting-to” epoxy–amine coupling strategy to enhance enzyme stability and antioxidant function. An amphiphilic copolymer composed of methacrylated 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidyl (PMA) and glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) was synthesized by controlled reversible addition–fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization using a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) macro-chain transfer agent (macro-CTA), yielding well-defined polymer chains with reactive epoxy groups. Covalent conjugation between polymer epoxides and GPx enzyme surface amines generated soft, PEGylated nanogels with high coupling efficiency, uniform particle sizes, and excellent colloidal stability. The engineered nanogels exhibited shear-thinning injectability, robust storage stability, and non-cytotoxic behavior in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Compared with native GPx enzyme, GPxNGs demonstrated significantly enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity, including strong inhibition of lipid peroxidation and copper-induced low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation. Importantly, the nanogels preserved GPx enzyme activity after extended storage, freeze–thaw cycles, and repeated catalytic use, whereas the free enzyme rapidly lost function. This protective effect arises from the nanoscale confinement of the GPx enzyme within the flexible PEG-based network, which limits unfolding and aggregation. Overall, this work introduces a simple and biocompatible “grafting-to” nanogel platform capable of stabilizing redox-active enzymes without harsh conditions. The GPx nanogels combine high enzymatic preservation, potent antioxidant activity, and excellent handling properties, highlighting their potential as a therapeutic nanoplatform for mitigating oxidative stress-associated disorders such as atherosclerosis. Full article

The identification and quantification of chitinolytic activity in microorganisms is critical for advancing biological control strategies against arthropod pests and fungal pathogens. However, current laboratory methods designed for fast detection of chitinolytic microorganisms are often time-consuming, produce low-quality results and lack sensitivity. Here, we report the development of a novel fluorogenic culture medium incorporating a chemically modified chitinase substrate, N-fluoresceyl poly-D-glucosamine, which allows for a highly sensitive chitinase assay, enabling both qualitative and quantitative fluorescent detection of chitinase activity in situ. This substrate is synthesized through covalent conjugation of poly-D-glucosamine with fluorescein isothiocyanate under alkaline conditions, resulting in an insoluble polymer that becomes fluorescent upon enzymatic hydrolysis by chitinases. When supplemented with culture media, the modified fluorogenic substrate serves as the sole carbon source, selectively supporting the growth of chitinolytic microorganisms. Enzymatic activity is visualized under longwave UV light and can be quantitatively measured via spectrophotometric (493 nm) or fluorometric (530 nm) methods. Validation using characterized entomopathogenic chitinolytic strains of the fungi Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium anisopliae demonstrated a detection sensitivity that was at least three orders of magnitude greater than that of conventional methods. In contrast, the non-chitinolytic fungi Penicillium notatum and Fusarium venenatum presented no detectable fluorescent signals. This fluorogenic medium provides a rapid, cost-effective, and highly sensitive tool for screening chitinolytic microorganisms with potential applications in agriculture, veterinary parasitology, and environmental microbiology. Full article

The growing need for effective antimicrobial polymeric materials has prompted extensive development of functional chitosan derivatives with enhanced physicochemical and biological properties. In this work, the conjugates of chitosan with 4-anisaldehyde (ChT-AA) were synthesised through Schiff base formation at various molar ratios and characterised using FT-IR, ¹H NMR, and thermal analysis techniques (TGA/DSC). The spectral data confirmed the successful formation of imine (C=N) linkages and the incorporation of aromatic anisaldehyde fragments into the chitosan structure. Thermal analysis demonstrated increased stability and a higher glass transition temperature for ChT-AA compared with native chitosan, indicating reduced polymer chain mobility and enhanced structural rigidity. Viscoelastic gels based on the synthesised ChT-AA (1:3) and methylcellulose were prepared and evaluated for their rheological properties and antimicrobial performance. Rheological studies revealed non-Newtonian shear-thinning behaviour of these gels with pronounced thixotropy, confirming reversible network recovery after shear deformation. Antimicrobial evaluation of chitosan, its 4-anisaldehyde conjugate (ChT–AA, 1:3), and free 4-anisaldehyde revealed distinct activity patterns. The gels showed no inhibition in the disk diffusion assay, likely due to limited diffusion of the active components. In liquid media, both ChT and ChT–AA exhibited identical minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against E. coli (0.313 mg/mL) and C. albicans (1.250 mg/mL), whereas ChT–AA showed two-fold stronger activity against S. aureus (0.313 mg/mL vs. 0.625 mg/mL for ChT). Free 4-anisaldehyde was most active against S. aureus (MIC = 0.175 mg/mL) but less effective against the other strains, confirming its narrower spectrum. These results indicate moderate antimicrobial efficacy in solution but limited activity in gel form due to restricted diffusion. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) are synthetic environmental pollutants increasingly linked to adverse human health effects. To study their biological impact, researchers require access to environmentally relevant MPs that can be accurately tracked in biological systems. However, most ambient MPs are composed of non-conjugated polymers that lack intrinsic fluorescence, limiting their utility in live-cell or in vivo imaging. Addressing this challenge, we present two alternative labeling approaches that enable visualization, tracking, and quantification of MPs. First, we stained nylon and polypropylene MPs with Rhodamine 6G, a fluorescent dye known for its stability and compatibility with in vivo applications. These labeled MPs retained strong fluorescence in murine lung tissue for up to one week, as confirmed by fluorescent microscopy. Second, we conjugated aminated polystyrene microspheres with IRDye-800CW, a near-infrared fluorophore that enables high-resolution imaging with minimal tissue autofluorescence via an In Vivo Imaging System and confocal microscopy. In vivo experiments revealed organ-specific accumulation of IRDye-labeled MPs, with a 2.8-fold increase in the liver and a 5-fold increase in spleen compared to controls, detectable up to 72 h post-injection. These labeling strategies provide researchers with practical tools to visualize and study the biodistribution of MPs in biological systems, advancing efforts to understand their health implications. Full article

Skeletal muscle, constituting ~40% of body mass, serves as a primary effector for movement and a key metabolic regulator through myokine secretion. Hereditary myopathies, including dystrophinopathies (DMD/BMD), limb–girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMD), and metabolic disorders like Pompe disease, arise from pathogenic mutations in structural, metabolic, or ion channel genes, leading to progressive weakness and multi-organ dysfunction. Gene therapy has emerged as a transformative strategy, leveraging viral and non-viral vectors to deliver therapeutic nucleic acids. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors dominate clinical applications due to their efficient transduction of post-mitotic myofibers and sustained transgene expression. Innovations in AAV engineering, such as capsid modification (chemical conjugation, rational design, directed evolution), self-complementary genomes, and tissue-specific promoters (e.g., MHCK7), enhance muscle tropism while mitigating immunogenicity and off-target effects. Non-viral vectors (liposomes, polymers, exosomes) offer advantages in cargo capacity (delivering full-length dystrophin), biocompatibility, and scalable production but face challenges in transduction efficiency and endosomal escape. Clinically, AAV-based therapies (e.g., Elevidys^® for DMD, Zolgensma^® for SMA) demonstrate functional improvements, though immune responses and hepatotoxicity remain concerns. Future directions focus on AI-driven vector design, hybrid systems (AAV–exosomes), and standardized manufacturing to achieve “single-dose, lifelong cure” paradigms for muscular disorders. Full article

Background: Hydrogels are 3D networks of hydrophilic polymers with various biomedical applications, including tissue regeneration, wound healing, and localized drug delivery. Hydrogel conjugation links therapeutic agents to a hydrogel network, creating a delivery system with adjustable and flexible hydrogel properties and drug activity, allowing for controlled release and enhanced drug stability. Conjugating therapeutic agents to hydrogels provides innovative delivery formats, including injectable and sprayable dosage forms, which facilitate localized and long-lasting delivery. This approach enables non-viral therapeutic methods, such as insertional mutagenesis, and minimally invasive drug administration. Scope and Objectives: While numerous reviews have analyzed advancements in hydrogel synthesis, characterization, properties, and hydrogels as a drug delivery vehicle, this review focuses on hydrogel conjugation, which enables the precise functionalization of hydrogels with small molecules and macromolecules. Subsequently, a description and discussion of several bio-conjugated hydrogel systems, as well as binding motifs (e.g., “click” chemistry, functional group coupling, enzymatic ligation, etc.) and their potential for clinical translation, are provided. In addition, the integration of therapeutic agents with nucleic acid-based hydrogels can be leveraged for sequence-specific binding, representing a leap forward in biomaterials. Key findings: Special attention was given to the latest conjugation approaches and binding motifs that are useful for designing hydrogel-based drug delivery systems. The review systematically categorizes hydrogel conjugates for drug delivery, focusing on conjugating hydrogels with major classes of therapeutic agents, including small-molecule drugs, nucleic acids, proteins, etc., each with distinct conjugation challenges. The design principles were discussed along with their properties and drug release profiles. Finally, future opportunities and current limitations of conjugated hydrogel systems are addressed. Full article

Conjugated microporous polymers (CMP) are advanced photocatalytic systems for degrading organic dyes. However, their potential and efficiency are often limited by rapid electron–hole pair (e⁻/h⁺) recombination. To overcome this limitation, this study proposes a strategy that involves designing a Mott–Schottky heterojunction and integrating graphene sheets with a near-zero bandgap into the CMP-1 framework, resulting in a non-covalent graphene/CMP (GCMP) heterojunction composite. GCMP serves two main functions: physical adsorption and photocatalytic absorption that uses visible light energy to trigger and degrade the organic dye. GCMP effectively degraded four dyes with both anionic and cationic properties (Rhodamine B; Nile Blue; Congo Red; and Orange II), demonstrating stable recyclability without losing its effectiveness. When exposed to visible light, GCMP generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), primarily singlet oxygen (¹O₂), and superoxide radicals (^•O₂), degrading the dye molecules. These findings highlight GCMP’s potential for real-world applications, offering a metal-free, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly solution for wastewater treatment. Full article