Search Results (751)

The contamination of cereals by mycotoxins represents a major concern due to their harmful effects on human health and food quality. The current study investigated the occurrence of major mycotoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1) in 158 raw cereal samples (durum wheat, barley, and maize) collected from two Tunisian regions: Beja (continental region) and Mahdia (coastal region). Mycotoxins were extracted using the QuEChERS method and quantified by UHPLC–MS/MS. Several mycotoxins were detected at high levels across all the cereals. In the Beja region, durum wheat was contaminated with AFB1, AFG1, ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1, with ENB being the most frequent (70%). Mahdia durum wheat was contaminated only with ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1, with ENB1 being the most prevalent (22.6%). Barley from both regions was contaminated only with ENs. The ENB was the most frequent (Beja 66%, Mahdia 28.6%). Maize from Beja was contaminated by OTA and ENs, with ENA1 being the most frequent (22.5%), while maize from Mahdia was contaminated by AFB1, AFB2, AFG2, and ENs (AFB1 was the most frequent, 35%). All wheat samples contaminated with AFG1 (6.55%) exceeded the European Union maximum limit for AFs in cereals (4 µg/kg). Similarly, maize samples contaminated with AFB1 (17.5%), AFB2 (10%), and AFG2 (2.5%) exceeded the EU maximum limit for aflatoxins in maize (10 µg/kg). Additionally, maize samples contaminated with OTA (5%) exceeded the EU maximum limit for OTA in unprocessed cereals (5 µg/kg). The co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins was observed in all cereal types, with up to six different mycotoxins detected in a single sample. Dietary risk assessment revealed high EDIs of AFB1, AFG1, and ENs through the consumption of wheat and barley by Tunisian adults. The calculated MOE values for AFB1 and AFG1 in wheat were below 10,000 (MOE = 1190 for AFB1 and 2.5 for AFG1), suggesting a potential health concern associated with dietary exposure. Despite this potential risk, AFB1 and AFG1 were detected in only 3% and 7% of the analyzed samples, respectively. These results highlight the need for regular monitoring and the establishment of regulations to control mycotoxins in Tunisian cereals. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a globally prevalent mycotoxin that threatens food and feed safety via severe multi-organ toxicity. Previous studies indicate that DON induces cellular energy metabolism dysregulation by triggering oxidative stress and impairing mitochondrial function. During this process, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), a central coenzyme in cellular energy metabolism, frequently exhibits significantly decreased intracellular levels or even complete depletion. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the disruption of NAD⁺ homeostasis by DON exposure, as well as the development of targeted countermeasures, remain elusive. Using human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells as an in vitro renal toxicity model, we dissected DON-induced NAD⁺ dysregulation and evaluated the protective potential of nicotinamide (NAM). DON caused significant NAD⁺ depletion in porcine serum (in vivo) and HEK293T cells (in vitro), which was confirmed as a key driver of cytotoxicity. Mechanistically, although DON binds and inhibits nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), the rate-limiting enzyme of the NAD⁺ salvage pathway, neither NAMPT knockdown and overexpression nor nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) supplementation rescued DON-induced toxicity. Instead, DON dose-dependently activated poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), the primary intracellular NAD⁺-consuming enzyme, to accelerate NAD⁺ depletion. PARP1 knockdown markedly attenuated DON-induced cytotoxicity, identifying PARP1 hyperactivation as the core toxic mechanism. NAM dose-dependently suppressed PARP1 activity, replenished NAD⁺ pools, and reversed cell injury. These findings establish PARP1-driven NAD⁺ depletion as an important mechanism of DON-induced renal toxicity, providing a promising intervention candidate for mitigating DON toxicity in food safety. Full article

Background: Exposure to anthropogenic and/or natural (e.g., herbicides or mycotoxins) endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has been linked to several reproductive disorders. Glyphosate (GLY), a common agricultural agent, is a potential element of the exposome that bioaccumulates and has potential endocrine and oxidative stress-related effects. However, data on its presence in the human ovarian microenvironment remain limited. Our study examined GLY levels in follicular fluid (ff) and serum and their relationships with oxidative stress markers, reproductive hormones, and stress hormones in women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF). Methods: 50 women undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation participated. Serum and ff samples were routinely collected during oocyte retrieval. GLY, related hormones (e.g., cortisol, estradiol-E2, anti-Müllerian hormone-AMH, and melatonin-MT), an oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA), antioxidant enzyme activities, total antioxidant capacity, and co-occurring natural pollutant mycotoxin levels were measured. Relationships between GLY levels and these mediators were assessed using correlation and regression analyses. Results: GLY was detected in both serum and ff at similar concentrations (0.038 ± 0.006 ng/mL vs. 0.045 ± 0.006 ng/mL; p = 0.414). Follicular GLY levels showed a positive association with MDA (Spearman’s r = 0.4487, p < 0.001), explaining 28.6% of the variability in follicular MDA. Serum GLY was positively associated with serum (β = 40.26, p = 0.0058) and follicular E2 (r = 0.29, p = 0.042). Serum GLY levels were negatively correlated with cortisol (β = −0.0188, p = 0.020). A slight correlation between follicular GLY and MT was observed (p = 0.03). No associations were found between GLY levels and age, body mass index, AMH, the recombinant gonadotropin dose used, antioxidant enzyme activities, follicle count, oocyte yield, or embryo viability. Conclusions: This study might be the first to demonstrate the presence of GLY of exposome in human ff, indicating that environmental exposure to GLY may reach the oocyte microenvironment. The correlation with lipid peroxidation suggests GLY could contribute to follicular oxidative stress. The associations with E2 and cortisol point to potential endocrine-disrupting effects. While no direct impact on IVF outcomes was observed, findings suggest low-level exposure to GLY could influence ovarian physiology through specific biochemical mechanisms. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination in wheat products has consistently been a key issue of concern in food safety, and urinary biomonitoring provides an effective approach for assessing internal human exposure. In this study, a sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 28 mycotoxins in wheat products and human urine. For the two matrices, the extraction solvent, acid concentration, solid-phase extraction cartridge type, and enzymatic hydrolysis parameters were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, all target compounds showed excellent linear relationships within the tested concentration ranges (R² > 0.99). In wheat products, the spiked recoveries ranged from 70.2% to 120%, the repeatabilities ranged from 1.6% to 9.1%, and the limits of detection and limits of quantification were 0.001~8.3 μg/kg and 0.002~25.0 μg/kg, respectively. In urine, the spiked recoveries ranged from 79.3% to 120%, the repeatabilities ranged from 0.7% to 9.4%, and the limits of detection and limits of quantification were 0.0001~1.0 μg/L and 0.0002~3.0 μg/L, respectively. Analysis of real samples showed that at least seven mycotoxins were detected in wheat product samples, and at least five were detected in urine samples. In wheat products, the detection rates of deoxynivalenol, enniatin B, enniatin A₁, enniatin B₁, tenuazonic acid, and tentoxin were all 100%, whereas in urine, the detection rate of fumonisin B₁ reached 100%, and tenuazonic acid showed the highest mean concentration in both matrices. In conclusion, the developed ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method is suitable for the simultaneous quantification of 28 mycotoxins in wheat products and human urine, and its preliminary application demonstrates good practical applicability. Full article

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a prevalent and highly toxic mycotoxin in the food and feed chain and can directly injure the intestinal epithelium. Yet, its upstream determinants linking epithelial stress to cytotoxicity remain insufficiently defined. Here, we used porcine intestinal epithelial IPEC-J2 cells to characterize AFB1-induced cytotoxic and transcriptomic responses and to determine the role of the tight-junction scaffold, Cingulin-like 1 (CGNL1), a candidate gene identified through genome-scale CRISPR knockout library screening. The results showed that AFB1 exposure reduced cell viability in a dose-dependent manner and induced oxidative stress. RNA-seq profiling analysis revealed broad transcriptional remodeling, with activation of inflammatory pathways (including NF-κB and JAK–STAT signaling). Based on our constructed CGNL1-knockout IPEC-J2 cell line (CGNL1-KO IPEC-J2) using CRISPR/Cas9, it was found that CGNL1 deficiency markedly alleviated AFB1-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress. Comparative transcriptomics analysis showed that CGNL1 knockout attenuated AFB1-triggered aberrant expression of some CGNL1-dependent AFB1-responsive genes related to immune response under AFB1 challenge. Together, these findings identify CGNL1 as a potential modulator of epithelial susceptibility to AFB1 and support its involvement in the regulation of toxin-induced oxidative response. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin widely present in cereals, feeds, and foods, posing a persistent threat to human and animal health. Hepatic fibrosis is a pathological process characterized by excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Chronic liver injury caused by sustained oxidative stress can initiate the development of early hepatic fibrosis. However, whether liver injury induced by ZEA can trigger hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation and promote early profibrotic responses remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess whether ZEA-induced liver injury promotes HSC activation and early profibrotic responses. To address this, we established a BALB/c mouse exposure model and used the murine HSC line (JS-1) for in vitro validation. The results showed that ZEA exposure caused structural damage in hepatic tissue and produced an incomplete bridging pattern of collagen thickening suggestive of an early profibrotic tendency. ZEA shaped a proinflammatory microenvironment by activating the IκBα/NF-κB axis and induced the TGF-β1/Smad2/3 pathway, accompanied by Smad7 suppression, thereby promoting HSC activation and the expression of fibrosis-related genes. ZEA also altered autophagy-related markers in liver tissue and JS-1 cells. Pharmacological inhibition with chloroquine partially attenuated ZEA-induced upregulation of α-SMA and collagen I/III, suggesting that autophagy-related processes may be involved in ZEA-associated HSC activation and early ECM deposition. In summary, ZEA promotes HSC activation and early profibrotic changes in the liver and is associated with inflammatory activation, TGF-β1/Smad signaling, and altered autophagy-related activity. These findings provide a basis for further investigation into the mechanisms underlying ZEA-induced early profibrotic remodeling in the liver. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination is an important threat to food and feed safety as well as human and animal health, with particular emphasis on oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, inflammation, and dysbiosis. Mycotoxins represent major health threats because they disturb cellular homeostasis and induce oxidative damage. Nutritional factors, such as dietary antioxidants and bioactive chemicals, can influence the body’s reaction to mycotoxin exposure, either reducing or increasing its effects. This study discusses how mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A) induce oxidative stress by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated DNA damage, which induces cellular damage and activates apoptosis, an intended cell death process that is critical for tissue integrity. Furthermore, mycotoxins alter autophagy, a cellular degradation process that can be beneficial or destructive depending on the situation, affecting cell survival. The inflammatory response is particularly important because mycotoxin-induced oxidative stress and cell damage activate inflammatory pathways, which contribute to tissue injury and disease progression. Nutritional factors high in antioxidants, anti-inflammatory substances (Lycopene, Curcumin, Thyme oil, Gum Arabic, and Ginger), probiotics, and prebiotics show potential in mitigating these negative consequences by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Advances in molecular biology and omics technologies (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and single-cell sequencing) can lead to better knowledge of the underlying pathways, allowing for more tailored nutritional recommendations and medicinal interventions. Finally, combining dietary modulation with mycotoxin risk management is a viable path for protecting health and increasing resilience to mycotoxin-related toxicities in animals. Full article

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and patulin (PAT) are prevalent foodborne mycotoxins with hepatotoxic potential, but the hepatic effects of combined exposure remain largely unclear. This study investigated the hepatotoxic consequences of co-exposure to AFB1 and PAT using no-observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) in C57BL/6 mice and low-cytotoxic concentrations in HepG2 cells selected by viability screening. Mice and cells were assigned to four groups: control, AFB1, PAT and AFB1 + PAT. Exposure to either toxin individually did not cause evident liver injury, whereas co-exposure significantly elevated alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities, reduced liver index, and induced clear histopathological alterations. Co-exposure markedly aggravated oxidative stress, characterized by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD). In parallel, the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were elevated, together with the early fibrosis-related markers alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and vimentin. The apoptotic response was characterized by increased Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and reduced B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), together with cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific protease-3 (caspase-3) activation. These findings indicate that co-exposure to AFB1 and PAT elicits hepatotoxicity through amplified oxidative stress, inflammation, and caspase-dependent apoptosis, supporting the need to further consider mycotoxin co-exposure in toxicological evaluation. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a potent estrogenic mycotoxin known to disrupt reproductive functions, but its precise central neuroendocrine mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of ZEA on the hypothalamic-pituitary Kiss1/GPR54 signaling pathway in weaned gilts. A total of 32 gilts were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments contained with 0, 0.15, 1.5, or 3.0 mg/kg ZEA for a 32-day feeding trial. Histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and mRNA/protein expression analyses of GPR30, Kiss1, GPR54, GnRH, and GnRHR in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland were conducted. ZEA exposure induced significant histological damage in both tissues. In the hypothalamus, Kiss1, GPR54, GnRH, and GnRHR exhibited a non-linear response, increasing at moderate doses and decreasing at 3.0 mg/kg ZEA, whereas GPR30 expression was continuously upregulated. In the pituitary gland, GnRHR showed a similar non-linear pattern. Furthermore, high-dose ZEA down-regulated pituitary Kiss1 and GPR54 while up-regulating GnRH and GPR30 expressions. In conclusion, ZEA induces reproductive neuroendocrine toxicity through a complex, dose-dependent modulation of the Kiss1/GPR54 signaling axis. The persistent upregulation of GPR30 suggests it acts as a crucial mediator in disrupting this endocrine feedback loop within the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Full article

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) and the mycotoxin patulin (PAT) serve as crucial chemical markers for evaluating the quality and safety of fruit-derived beverages, particularly pomegranate juice. This study aimed to quantify the occurrence of 5-HMF and PAT in commercial reconstituted pomegranate juices and assess the associated dietary exposure risks. A total of 154 commercial samples, collected from a Turkish processing facility during the 2024–2025 production seasons, were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. 5-HMF was detected in 152 samples (98.7%) at concentrations ranging from 1.03 to 10.79 mg/kg, with only two samples (1.3%) exceeding the critical threshold of 10 mg/kg. PAT was found in 57 samples (37.0%), with concentrations between 3.61 and 50.69 µg/kg, and only one sample (0.6%) exceeded the European Union maximum level established for fruit juices. Estimated mean daily intakes for adults and children ranged from 0.374 to 2.362 and 1.139 to 8.546 µg/kg bw/day for 5-HMF, and from 0.001 to 0.006 and 0.002 to 0.021 µg/kg bw/day for PAT, respectively. Risk characterisation based on hazard quotient values indicated that PAT exposure did not pose a significant health risk for either population group, highlighting the overall safety of the analysed products. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic Fusarium mycotoxin widely contaminating feed and feedstuffs, and posing significant risks to animal health. This preliminary study aimed to evaluate the toxicological effects of dietary exposure to purified ZEA at doses ranging from below to above the Chinese regulatory limit (0.15 mg/kg) in weaned female piglets. Twenty piglets were randomly assigned to five groups (four piglets per group) receiving 0, 0.075, 0.15, 0.3, or 0.6 mg/kg ZEA for 42 days. Results suggested that ZEA promoted systemic oxidative stress, evidenced by decreased serum total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content in liver across all doses, and in jejunal mucosa at ≥0.15 mg/kg (p < 0.01). Growth performance declined only at 0.6 mg/kg during days 29–42 (p < 0.01), while hemoglobin (HGB) levels (p < 0.01) and ileal villus height (p < 0.05) were reduced at all doses. ZEA also caused inflammatory dysregulation, as evidenced by decreased interleukin-4 (IL-4) levels in serum, liver, and intestinal tissues across all doses (p < 0.01), and disrupted reproductive hormones even at 0.075 mg/kg, as indicated by suppressed serum luteinizing hormone (LH) levels (p < 0.01), which progressed to histopathological damage in uterine and ovarian tissues at higher doses. These preliminary findings, together with significant correlations between oxidative stress markers and multi-organ parameters, suggest that low doses of purified ZEA may induce systemic oxidative stress and subclinical multi-organ toxicity in weaned female piglets, highlighting the need to incorporate redox status into risk assessment and to explore potential antioxidant-based mitigation strategies. However, given the small sample size, these results should be interpreted with caution and warrant validation in larger samples. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent threat to food safety in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and neighboring countries, driven by conducive tropical agroecological conditions, inadequate post-harvest practices, and limited regulatory governance. This critical narrative review (2009–2024) synthesizes the occurrence data for major staple foods (maize, peanuts, cassava, sorghum, millet, and beans) and dairy products compiled from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI and institutional sources. It examines the co-occurrence patterns, exposure pathways, and analytical and regulatory gaps. Warm, humid lowland environments favor Aspergillus and aflatoxins, whereas cooler, humid highland zones promote Fusarium, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol. Across commodities, contamination intensifies along food value chains through inadequate drying, non-hermetic storage, insect damage, and prolonged handling, with processed products generally exhibiting the highest levels of mycotoxins. Regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and zearalenone, frequently exceed European Union (EU), East African Community (EAC), and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) limits in staple foods. Their co-occurrence is widespread, including emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin and enniatins, particularly in maize- and peanut-based products, raising concerns about potential additive or synergistic effects. Aflatoxin M1 in milk highlights plant–feed–animal–human transfer within a One Health framework. Despite increasing evidence, the available data remain fragmented and heterogeneous; rapid tests dominate, while few studies employ multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods. Cross-border trade between countries, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Angola, facilitates the circulation of contaminated commodities in the absence of harmonized standards and risk-based controls. Priorities include harmonized regional surveillance, biomarker-based co-exposure assessment, cost-effectiveness evaluation of mitigation strategies, and regulatory alignment at borders. Coordinated, multisectoral action is essential to reduce chronic dietary exposure and improve food safety across the region. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common mycotoxin linked to ovarian oxidative stress, toxicity, and reduced reproductive performance. Fermented Chinese chive is known for its antioxidant properties and potential reproductive benefits, but their individual and combined effects on ovarian function remain unclear in post-pubertal mice. In this study, a 21-day oral gavage model in female Kunming mice was used to evaluate the effects of DON (2 mg/kg/day), fermented Chinese chive extract (LEEK; 0.2 mL/day), and their combined exposure (LKDON) on ovarian physiology, oocyte quality, and ovarian transcriptomic responses. The results showed that DON exposure significantly reduced the zygote cleavage rate, increased intracellular reactive oxygen species levels, and disrupted oocyte mitochondrial membrane potential. While histological examination revealed disturbed follicular architecture. Transcriptomic hub gene analysis showed that DON exposure down-regulate the key associated with innate immune responses and motile cilia/axonemal structure, including Rsph4a, Drc1, Zmynd10, Hydin, and Tmem212. In contrast, LEEK alone was associated with immunomodulatory upregulated genes, including Il5, Cd27, and Crp. Interestingly, LKDON and DON comparison revealed upregulation of a motile cilia/axoneme gene network (Dnah5, Dnah11, Tekt1, Zmynd10, Cfap44, and Spag6l), rather than a global reversal of DON-induced changes. Overall, finding suggest that DON disrupts ovarian immune and structural pathways, while fermented Chinese chive provides partial protection by modulating specific biological processes. Further studies are needed to confirm the underlying mechanisms. Full article

This study aimed to investigate the effects of different aerobic exposure durations on mycotoxin accumulation, nutritional quality changes, and microbial community dynamics of corncob silage. The experiment was divided into four groups: T0 (corncob silage fermented for 45 days without aerobic exposure), T4 (corncob silage exposed to air for 4 days), T8 (corncob silage exposed to air for 8 days), and T12 (corncob silage exposed to air for 12 days). The results showed that after aerobic exposure, the contents of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC), Crude Ash, lactic acid (LA), and ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N) in all exposed groups (T4, T8, T12) were significantly lower than those in the T0 group, whereas the contents of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), propionic acid (PA), and butyric acid (BA) were significantly higher than those in the T0 group. Exposure to aerobic conditions for 12 days resulted in the four mycotoxins exhibiting levels significantly higher than those in the other groups, and notably, zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin (OT) exhibited a continuous increase in concentration with the extension of aerobic exposure. Aerobic exposure increased bacterial diversity and fungal relative abundance, and significant separations were observed in both bacterial and fungal communities between the T0 group and the aerobic exposure groups. At the phylum level, Firmicutes was the dominant bacterial phylum in the T0 group, while Pseudomonadota became the dominant phylum after aerobic exposure. At the genus level, Lacticaseibacillus was the dominant bacterial genus in the T0 group, whereas Variovorax, Vibrionimonas, and Mycobacterium dominated the bacterial communities in the aerobic exposure groups. The relative abundance of the fungal phylum Ascomycota increased from 30% in the T0 group to 80~90% in the aerobic exposure groups; the dominant fungal genera shifted from Zygosaccharomyces to Albifimbria and Pichia. In conclusion, prolonged aerobic exposure elevates the concentrations of mycotoxins in corncob silage, reduces the nutritional quality, and induces significant shifts in both bacterial and fungal community compositions. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a Fusarium-derived mycotoxin widely found in grain-based feed, has become a major global environmental contaminant. Reproductive toxicity is one of its most important toxic effects, yet systematic investigations covering both male and female reproductive injury remain limited. This study aimed to establish a combined strategy of network toxicology, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and single-cell RNA sequencing to evaluate the reproductive toxicity of DON. AKT1, EGFR, PIK3CA, PIK3R1, and SRC were identified as key targets involved in DON-induced reproductive injury. For testicular injury, the prolactin, Ras, HIF-1, and AGE-RAGE signaling pathways were closely associated with DON toxicity. For ovarian injury, the PI3K-Akt, HIF-1, prolactin, insulin, and AGE-RAGE signaling pathways were strongly implicated. Molecular docking demonstrated favorable binding affinities between DON and the hub targets, while molecular dynamics simulation further confirmed the stability of the DON–PIK3CA complex. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis revealed that these five hub genes were highly expressed in both testicular (SRA667709:SRS3065430) and ovarian (SRA638923:SRS2797100) tissues. These findings deepen current understanding of DON-induced reproductive toxicity, provide new insights into the effects of environmental toxins on reproductive health, and offer a theoretical basis for future studies integrating DON exposure with in vivo validation of core targets and signaling pathways. Full article