Search Results (345)

The current study examines the innovative use of rubber–concrete composites as structural solutions that provide significantly higher noise absorption properties compared to traditional concrete. Focusing on their potential for sound insulation in challenging environments such as wind energy infrastructure, the study examines the effect of varying contents of ground tyre rubber (GTR) content (20%, 40%, and 60% by volume) and acetone treatment duration (0, 1, 6, and 24 h) on the characteristics of the composite. The results demonstrate that these rubber–concrete composites significantly improve both sound absorption and sound insulation. An increase in sound absorption coefficients to approximately 0.18 was observed, representing an average improvement of 43.4% compared to the average coefficient of the reference mixture, 0.043. This improvement is particularly effective in the 100–1250 Hz frequency range and maintains stable properties from 50 to 1600 Hz. Sound transmission losses also showed a clear improvement in the mid-frequency ranges. Despite their excellent acoustic characteristics, these structural composites demonstrate a compromise in mechanical properties. Compressive strength decreased from approximately 43–46 MPa (control) to 25–38 MPa at 60% rubber content after 28 days, representing a 40–46% reduction. The reduction in flexural strength was even more pronounced, decreasing by approximately 60% at a rubber content of 35%. However, treatment of GTR with acetone significantly improved interfacial bonding, increasing mechanical integrity at moderate rubber doses (20–40%). The optimal range of rubber content, providing a balance between acoustic benefits and structural integrity, appears to be 15–25%. Full article

Background/Objectives: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is associated with anorexia–cachexia syndrome, which negatively affects health-related quality of life (HRQoL). This study aimed to evaluate HRQoL and functional status in CRC patients undergoing chemotherapy who were eligible for oral nutritional supplementation (ONS). Methods: In this prospective, randomized study, 72 patients with stage II–IV CRC were enrolled (40 intervention group [IG], 32 control group [CG]). IG received ONS (2 × 125 mL/day, 600 kcal, 36 g protein) for 12 weeks, while CG received dietary counseling only. HRQoL was assessed every 4 weeks with the Functional Assessment of Anorexia/Cachexia Therapy (FAACT, version 4.0). Functional status was evaluated with the Karnofsky scale. Nutritional status was assessed using the Subjective Global Assessment (SGA), Nutritional Risk Screening (NRS-2002), and body mass index (BMI), and appetite was assessed on a visual analogue scale (VAS). Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02848807. Results: Mean FAACT score did not differ significantly between groups over 12 weeks (101.0 ± 22.8, 95% CI: 94.6–107.4 vs. 105.1 ± 21.4, 95% CI: 99.1–111.1; p = 0.06). However, the observed difference corresponded to an effect size at the lower bound of the moderate range. However, minimally important difference (MID) analysis demonstrated that clinically meaningful improvement was significantly more frequent in IG than in CG for global FAACT (32% vs. 8%; p = 0.03, OR = 5.50, 95% CI: 1.10–27.62, φ = 0.29), physical well-being (32% vs. 8%; p = 0.03, OR = 5.50, 95% CI: 1.10–27.62, φ = 0.29), and emotional well-being (38% vs. 4%; p = 0.002, OR = 14.86, 95% CI: 1.79–123.36, φ = 0.40). Functional well-being and anorexia/cachexia concerns showed favorable, but nonsignificant, trends (FWB improvement: 29% vs. 8%, p = 0.05, OR = 4.79, 95% CI: 0.95–24.27, φ = 0.26; ACS deterioration: 3% vs. 20%, p = 0.07, OR = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.01–1.11, φ = 0.28). HRQoL correlated positively with nutritional status, appetite, and functional performance, while Karnofsky scores remained stable in both groups. Conclusions: ONS did not significantly change the mean QoL scores at the group level but increased the proportion of patients achieving clinically meaningful improvement, particularly in the physical and emotional domains. These findings suggest that ONS may benefit selected patients who respond to nutritional interventions, underscoring the clinical relevance of individualized nutrition strategies in oncology. Full article

Unmanned Aerial Spraying Systems (UASS) has rapidly advanced precision crop protection. However, the spray performance of UASSs is influenced by nozzle atomization, rotor-induced airflow, and external environmental conditions. These factors cause strong spatiotemporal coupling and high uncertainty. As a result, visualization-based monitoring techniques are now essential for understanding these dynamics and supporting spray modeling and drift-mitigation design. This review highlights developments in spray visualization technologies along the “droplet–airflow–target” chain mechanism in UASS spraying. We first outline the physical fundamentals of droplet formation, liquid-sheet breakup, droplet size distribution, and transport mechanisms in rotor-induced flow. Dominant processes are identified across near-field, mid-field, and far-field scales. Next, we summarize major visualization methods. These include optical imaging (PDPA/PDIA, HSI, DIH), laser-based scattering and ranging (LD, LiDAR), and flow-field visualization (PIV). We compare their spatial resolution, measurement range, 3D reconstruction capabilities, and possible sources of error. We then review wind-tunnel trials, field experiments, and point-cloud reconstruction studies. These studies show how downwash flow and tip vortices affect plume structure, canopy disturbance, and deposition patterns. Finally, we discuss emerging intelligent analysis for large-scale monitoring—such as image-based droplet recognition, multimodal data fusion, and data-driven modeling. We outline future directions, including unified feature systems, vortex-coupled models, and embedded closed-loop spray control. This review is a comprehensive reference for advancing UASS analysis, drift assessment, spray optimization, and smart support systems. Full article

Identifying superior genotypes in multi-environment trials is crucial for accelerating cultivar improvement and breeding innovation. This study evaluated the yield potential of 29 maize hybrids (including the control) across 10 trial locations in mid-to-high altitude regions of Yunnan Province from two growing seasons (2023–2024), aiming to recommend high-yielding, stable, and widely adapted maize varieties. Analysis of variance indicated that genotype, environment, and their interaction all had highly significant effects (p < 0.001) on maize yield, with environmental factors accounting for the primary source of variation; in 2023 and 2024, 63.79% and 64.15% of the total variation were explained, respectively. The grain yield of the maize hybrids ranged from 8873 kg/ha to 12,089 kg/ha, with the highest yield over the two consecutive years being 11,783 kg/ha (XR-399). Yield mean analysis identified the top-performing hybrids annually: in 2023, these were G28, G13, G22; in 2024, they included G5, G13, G4. In the GGE biplot analysis, E2 (Binchuan), E5 (Lijiang), E7 (Shilin), and E8 (Xuanwei) were the most distinguishable and representative test environments. The “mean vs. stability” GGE biplot indicated that G22 (LS-2305), G9 (LS-2303), and G13 (XR-399) exhibited consistent high yields and stability across years. Based on the “Which-Won-Where” GGE biplot, G27 (SS-2205) and G13 (XR-399) were identified as the optimal hybrids for each mega-environment, with G13 (XR-399) emerging as the most outstanding. Therefore, these findings confirm that the GGE biplot method is effective for screening high-yielding, stable hybrids and identifying representative test environments, thereby providing a scientific foundation for maize breeding work in the region. Full article

Background: Memory B cells (B_mem) facilitate the generation of renewed and rapid antigen-specific antibody responses long after the initial antigen exposure, at a time when circulating serum antibodies may have declined. As the generation and/or recruitment of B_mem is at the core of most vaccination strategies, the assessment of antigen-specific B_mem is highly informative for forecasting and profiling the elicited B cell immune response. Methods: The two prevalent techniques used to detect antigen-specific B_mem cells at single-cell resolution are probe-based flow cytometry and B cell ImmunoSpot, while the measurement of B cell-derived antibodies in culture supernatants of stimulated B cells offers a semi-quantitative alternative. To the best of our knowledge, a direct side-by-side comparison of these assay systems has not yet been reported using the same starting PBMC material in a blinded fashion to test all three assays simultaneously. Results: These three assay systems were run in parallel to detect SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan-1 strain Spike-specific IgG⁺ B_mem in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples obtained from well-defined cohorts comprising pre-COVID-19 era “naïve” individuals (negative controls), individuals shortly after recovery from a PCR-verified SARS-CoV-2 infection (positive controls), and a cohort of donor PBMCs isolated in 2024 (the experimental group). Each assay was able to discern Spike-exposed individuals from naïve , with ImmunoSpot suggesting superior sensitivity and specificity. ImmunoSpot and flow cytometry results were closely correlated. Conclusions: The study demonstrates that all three assays are suited for the detection of specific B_mem in antigen-primed individuals when such B_mem occur in the mid- to high-frequency range, and that they broadly concur. Strengths and weaknesses of the three test systems are discussed. Full article

Globally, lakes are increasingly recognized as sensitive indicators of climate change and ecosystem stress. Qaraoun Lake, Lebanon’s largest artificial reservoir, is a critical resource for irrigation, hydropower generation, and domestic water supply. Over the past 25 years, satellite remote sensing has enabled consistent monitoring of its hydrological and environmental dynamics. This study leverages the advanced cloud-based processing capabilities of Google Earth Engine (GEE) to analyze over 180 cloud-free scenes from Landsat 7 (Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus) (ETM+) from 2000 to present, Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI/TIRS) from 2013 to present, and Landsat 9 OLI-2/TIRS-2 from 2021 to present, quantifying changes in lake surface area, water volume, and pollution levels. Water extent was delineated using the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI), enhanced through pansharpening to improve spatial resolution from 30 m to 15 m. Water quality was evaluated using a composite pollution index that integrates three spectral indicators—the Normalized Difference Chlorophyll Index (NDCI), the Floating Algae Index (FAI), and a normalized Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) band—which serves as a proxy for turbidity and organic matter. This index was further standardized against a conservative Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) threshold to reduce vegetation interference. The resulting index ranges from near-zero (minimal pollution) to values exceeding 1.0 (severe pollution), with higher values indicating elevated chlorophyll concentrations, surface reflectance anomalies, and suspended particulate matter. Results indicate a significant decline in mean annual water volume, from a peak of 174.07 million m³ in 2003 to a low of 106.62 million m³ in 2025 (until mid-November). Concurrently, pollution levels increased markedly, with the average index rising from 0.0028 in 2000 to a peak of 0.2465 in 2024. Episodic spikes exceeding 1.0 were detected in 2005, 2016, and 2024, corresponding to documented contamination events. These findings were validated against multiple institutional and international reports, confirming the reliability and efficiency of the GEE-based methodology. Time-series visualizations generated through GEE underscore a dual deterioration, both hydrological and qualitative, highlighting the lake’s growing vulnerability to anthropogenic pressures and climate variability. The study emphasizes the urgent need for integrated watershed management, pollution control measures, and long-term environmental monitoring to safeguard Lebanon’s water security and ecological resilience. Full article

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is a globally important forage crop; however, improvements in its biomass yield have stagnated due to its complex genetic architecture and the costly, labor-intensive phenotyping. This study evaluated the potential of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to predict biomass yield and enhance selection efficiency in alfalfa breeding programs. Specifically, nineteen alfalfa experimental populations (AEXP 1–19) and one control cultivar (OS 66) were evaluated over two growing seasons in Croatia. NDVI was measured at four development stages using a GreenSeeker sensor and compared with forage yield, dry matter yield, and plant height. NDVI values varied significantly among genotypes, years, and growth stages, ranging from 0.23 to 0.87, and increased consistently from early to late vegetative phases. Strong positive correlations were observed between NDVI and forage yield (r = 0.543–0.843) and plant height (r = 0.537–0.738) at early vegetative, late vegetative, and early bud stages. Conversely, NDVI at the mid-vegetative stage correlated negatively with yield and height (r = –0.622 to –0.794). High-performing populations (AEXP 2, AEXP 15, AEXP 18) also exhibited the highest NDVI values. NDVI is a reliable, non-destructive indicator for early selection of high-yielding alfalfa genotypes, although multi-location validation is advised to confirm its broader applicability. Full article

Background: Among hormone therapy options for menopause, subcutaneous estradiol pellets offer sustained hormone release, avoid first-pass hepatic metabolism, and maintain a near-physiological estradiol-to-estrone ratio. Despite clinical use since the 1940s, standardized protocols remain lacking. Methods: We performed a critical narrative review following SANRA criteria. PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and LILACS were searched from 1949 to 2024 for randomized trials, cohort studies, and case series on estradiol pellets and outcomes in symptom control, bone health, pharmacokinetics, and safety. Animal studies, editorials, and reports without primary clinical data were excluded. Results: Following an initial peak within the first week, pellets maintain stable serum estradiol levels within the early-to-mid follicular range (50–113 pg/mL depending on dose) for four to six months, with a near-physiological E2:E1 ratio of approximately 1.5:1. The 25 mg dose achieves mean levels of 50–70 pg/mL, effectively controls vasomotor symptoms, and increases bone mineral density. Compared with oral estradiol, pellets bypass hepatic first-pass metabolism, resulting in neutral or favorable metabolic and thrombotic profiles. Compared with transdermal therapy, pellets provide more predictable pharmacokinetics, especially in women with low skin absorption. Safety concerns, including bleeding, tachyphylaxis, and supraphysiological levels, are mainly associated with excessive dosing, premature reimplantation, or lack of endometrial protection in women with a uterus. Conclusions: Estradiol pellets are an effective option for women with poor transdermal absorption, low adherence to daily regimens, or surgical menopause. Safety depends on clinical management with individualized dosing, adequate endometrial protection, and laboratory monitoring. Long-term comparative studies are needed to standardize protocols and support broader evidence-based use. Full article

Amid accelerating climate change, intensifying urban heat island effects, and rising public demand for livable, walkable streets, there is an urgent practical need for interpretable and actionable evidence on streetscape quality. Yet, research on streetscape quality has often relied on single data sources and linear models, limiting insight into multidimensional perception; evidence from temperate monsoon cities remains scarce. Using Tianjin’s main urban area as a case study, we integrate street-view imagery with remote sensing imagery to characterize satellite-derived environmental indicators at the point scale and examine the following five perceptual outcomes: comfort, aesthetics, perceived greenness, summer heat perception, and willingness to linger. We develop a three-step interpretable assessment, as follows: Elastic Net logistic regression to establish directional and magnitude baselines; Generalized Additive Models with a logistic link to recover nonlinear patterns and threshold bands with Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate control and binned probability calibration; and Shapley additive explanations to provide parallel validation and global and local explanations. The results show that the Green View Index is consistently and positively associated with all five outcomes, whereas Spatial Balance is negative across the observed range. Sky View Factor and the Building Visibility Index display heterogeneous forms, including monotonic, U-shaped, and inverted-U patterns across outcomes; Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and Land Surface Temperature are likewise predominantly nonlinear with peak sensitivity in the midrange. In total, 54 of 55 smoothing terms remain significant after Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate correction. The summer heat perception outcome is highly imbalanced: 94.2% of samples are labeled positive. Overall calibration is good. On a standardized scale, we delineate optimal and risk intervals for key indicators and demonstrate the complementary explanatory value of street-view imagery and remote sensing imagery for people-centered perceptions. In Tianjin, a temperate monsoon megacity, the framework provides reproducible, actionable, design-relevant evidence to inform streetscape optimization and offers a template that can be adapted to other cities, subject to local calibration. Full article

Background/Objectives: The delayed effects of organophosphate poisoning may manifest years after exposure, often masked by age-related diseases. The aim of this retrospective cohort study was to identify the biochemical “trace” that could remain in patients decades after poisoning. We determined a wide range of biochemical parameters, along with the spectrum of esterified and non-esterified fatty acids (EFAs and NEFAs, respectively), in the blood plasma of a cohort of elderly patients diagnosed with occupational pathology (OP) due to (sub)chronic exposure to organophosphates in the 1980s. Methods: Elderly patients with and without a history of exposure to organophosphates were retrospectively divided into two groups: controls (n = 59, aged 73 ± 4, men 29% and women 71%) and those with OP (n = 84, aged 74 ± 4, men 29% and women 71%). The period of neurological examination and blood sampling for subsequent analysis was from mid-2022 to the end of 2023. Determination of the content of biomarkers of metabolic syndrome, NEFAs, and EFAs in blood plasma was performed by HPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS. Results: The medical histories of the examined elderly individuals with OP and the aged control group included common age-related diseases. However, patients with OP more often had hepatitis, gastrointestinal diseases, polyneuropathy, and an increased BMI. Analysis of metabolic biomarkers revealed, in the OP group, a decrease in the concentrations of 3-hydroxybutyrate (p < 0.05), 2-hydroxybutyrate (p < 0.0001), and acetyl-L-carnitine (p < 0.001) and the activity of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) (p < 0.05), but an increase in the esterase activity of albumin (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis revealed significant relationships between albumin esterase activity and arachidonic acid concentrations in the OP group (0.64, p < 0.0001). A study of a wide range of fatty acids in patients with OP revealed reciprocal relationships between EFAs and NEFAs. A statistically significant decrease in concentration was shown for esters of margaric, stearic, eicosadienoic, eicosatrienoic, arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic fatty acids. A statistically significant increase in concentration was shown for non-esterified heptadecenoic, eicosapentaenoic, eicosatrienoic, docosahexaenoic, γ-linolenic, myristic, eicosenoic, arachidonic, eicosadienoic, oleic, linoleic, palmitic, linoelaidic, stearic, palmitoleic, pentadecanoic, and margaric acids. Decreases in the ratios of omega-3 to other unsaturated fatty acids were observed only for the esterified forms. Conclusions: The data obtained allow us to consider an increased level of NEFAs as one of the main cytotoxic factors for the vascular endothelium. Modification of albumin properties and decreased bioavailability of docosahexaenoic acid could be molecular links that cause specific manifestations of organophosphate-induced pathology at late stages after exposure. Full article

Externally bonded carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) can increase the flexural capacity of steel beams, but the benefit is often limited by the performance of the adhesive interface. This study develops and validates a three-dimensional finite-element model (FEM) with an explicit cohesive-zone representation of the adhesive layer. It reproduced benchmark four-point bending tests in terms of peak load, corresponding mid-span deflection, and the transition from end/intermediate debonding to laminate rupture. A one-factor-at-a-time parametric analysis is carried out to examine the influence of (i) member geometry (beam depth; flange and web thickness), (ii) CFRP configuration (bonded length; laminate thickness), and (iii) bond quality (cohesive normal strength). Within the ranges studied, cohesive strength and bonded length are the primary variables controlling both capacity and failure mode: strengths below about 25 MPa and short plates lead to debonding-governed response. Increasing strength to around 27 MPa and bonded length to 650–700 mm delays debonding, promotes CFRP rupture, and produces the largest incremental gains in peak load, while further increases in length give smaller additional gains. Increasing laminate thickness and steel depth or flange/web thickness always raises peak load, but under baseline bond conditions failure remains debonding and the added material is only partially mobilized. When cohesive strength is increased above the threshold, additional CFRP thickness becomes more effective. A linear regression model is fitted to the FEM dataset to express peak load as a function of bonded length, cohesive strength, laminate thickness, and steel dimensions, and is complemented by a failure-mode map and a cost–capacity chart based on material quantities. Together, these results provide quantitative trends and simple relations that can support preliminary design of CFRP-strengthened steel beams for similar configurations. Full article

Photosynthesis (PS) is the cornerstone of crop productivity, directly influencing yield potential. Photosynthesis remains an underexploited target in soybean breeding, partly because field-based photosynthetic traits are difficult to measure at scale. Also, it is unclear which reproductive stage(s) provide the most informative physiological signals for yield. Few studies have evaluated soybean PS in elite germplasm under field conditions, and the integration of chlorophyll fluorescence (CF) with UAV imaging for PS traits remains largely unexplored. This study evaluated genotypic variation in photosynthetic and canopy traits among elite soybean germplasm across environments and developmental stages using CF and UAV imaging. Linear mixed-model analysis revealed significant genotypic and G×E effects for yield, canopy and several photosynthetic parameters. Broad-sense heritability (H²) estimates indicated dynamic genetic control, ranging from 0.12 to 0.77 at the early stage (S1) and 0.20–0.81 at the mid-reproductive stage (S2). Phi2, SPAD and FvP/FmP exhibited the highest heritability, suggesting their potential as stable selection targets. Correlation analyses showed that while FvP/FmP and SPAD were modestly associated with yield at S1, stronger positive relationships with Phi2, PAR and FvP/FmP emerged during S2, underscoring the importance of sustained photosynthetic efficiency during pod formation. Principal component analysis identified photosynthetic efficiency and leaf structural traits as key axes of physiological variation. UAV-derived indices such as NDRE, MTCI, SARE, MExG and CIRE were significantly correlated with CF-based traits and yield, highlighting their utility as high-throughput proxies for canopy performance. These findings demonstrate the potential of integrating CF and UAV phenotyping to enhance physiological selection and yield improvement in soybean breeding. Full article

Background/Objectives: Differential learning (DL) amplifies natural fluctuations in movement execution and, in its more extreme forms, facilitates repetition-free training with minimal external feedback. While increasingly recognized in the field of skill acquisition, its application in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation remains underexplored. Methods: This study examined the application of DL in the rehabilitation of an 18-year-old trained basketball player following left-ACL reconstruction. The athlete completed a 42-week rehabilitation program in which DL principles were incorporated throughout the pre-operative, early, mid-, and late phases, culminating in return to sport. Training included differential mobility work, motor control, plyometric exercises, and sport-specific drills. Functional recovery was evaluated using single-leg hop tests, change-of-direction tasks, and sprint performance, while self-reported knee function was monitored via the International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) questionnaire. Results: Results indicated substantial improvements in both functional performance and psychological readiness. The IKDC score increased from 13.8% at baseline to 95.4% postoperatively, reaching the normal functional range. An ACL-RSI score of 85.2%, and inter-limb asymmetries were reduced to below 10%. Strength, agility, and sprint performance exceeded pre-injury levels. Conclusions: DL again shows potential as an effective approach to facilitating recovery and return to sport after ACL reconstruction, but larger controlled studies are needed for validation. Full article

To address the issue of sound absorption valleys in open-cell aluminum foam and enhance mid-to-high frequency (800–6300 Hz) performance, we developed a novel pore-penetrating 316L stainless steel fiber–aluminum foam (PPFCAF) composite using an infiltration method. The formation mechanism of the pore-penetrating fibers, the resultant pore-structure, and the accompanying sound absorption properties were investigated systematically. The PPFCAF was fabricated using 316L stainless steel fiber–NaCl composites created by an evaporation crystallization process, which ensured the full embedding of fibers within the pore-forming agent, resulting in a three-dimensional fiber-pore interpenetrating network after infiltration and desalination. Experimental results demonstrate that the PPFCAF with a porosity of 82.8% and a main pore size of 0.5 mm achieves a sound absorption valley value of 0.861. An average sound absorption coefficient is 0.880 in the target frequency range, representing significant improvements of 9.8% and 9.9%, respectively, higher than that of the conventional infiltration aluminum foam (CIAF). Acoustic impedance reveal that the incorporated fibers improve the impedance matching between the composite material and air, thereby reducing sound reflection. Finite element simulations further elucidate the underlying mechanisms: the pore-penetrating fibers influence the paths followed by air particles and the internal surface area, thereby increasing the interaction between sound waves and the solid framework. A reduction in the main pore size intensifies the interaction between sound waves and pore walls, resulting in a lower overall reflection coefficient and a decreased reflected sound pressure amplitude (0.502 Pa). In terms of energy dissipation, the combined effects of the fibers and refinement increase the specific surface area, thereby strengthening viscous effects (instantaneous sound velocity up to 46.1 m/s) and thermal effects (temperature field increases to 0.735 K). This synergy leads to a notable rise in the total plane wave power dissipation density, reaching 0.0609 W/m³. Our work provides an effective strategy for designing high-performance composite metal foams for noise control applications. Full article

Erosion of the leading edge of blades in windy and sandy environments can cause wind turbines to lose up to 25% of their annual power generation. Traditional studies have mostly focused on the impact of single factors on erosion rates, but the effects of multiple parameters on erosion rates within the framework of the Stokes number (Stk) of dust particles have not yet been clarified. This study employs a numerical approach based on the Euler–Lagrange framework, integrating the SST k-ω turbulence model with a discrete phase model (DPM) to simulate the unsteady gas–solid two-phase flow around a NACA 0012 airfoil. The computational model was rigorously validated through grid independence tests and comparison with experimental aerodynamic data from the database, showing strong agreement under steady conditions. Systematic simulations were conducted with particle diameters ranging from 10 to 360 μm, densities from 2650 to 3580 kg/m³, and inflow velocities from 1.5 to 21 m/s, comprehensively covering Stokes number regimes from Stk << 1 to Stk >> 1. Through parametric analysis, we quantify the control effect of Stk on erosion rate and erosion hot spots. Simulation results indicate that Stk has a zone-specific control effect on airfoil erosion: erosion hot spots in low-Stk zones migrate from the mid-to-rear edge to the leading edge. Erosion rate peaks when Stk ≈ 0.8. Inertial impact in the high-Stk zone dominates surface damage propagation. Based on the simulation results, an erosion model with an error of ≤3.6% was established for the E = K∙Stk^a∙d_p^b∙v^c zone, providing a quantitative physical basis to inform wind turbine blade protection strategies. Full article