Search Results (253)

The practices followed in the preservation of medieval castles in Latvia during the Soviet occupation period have not yet been comprehensively examined. This article seeks to elucidate this issue by considering a single case study—Turaida Castle. From the 13th until the mid-16th century, Turaida Castle functioned as one of the principal residences of the Archbishop of Riga. From the 17th century onward, its medieval fortifications progressively deteriorated. Between 1952 and 1991, during the Soviet occupation period, the ruins of Turaida Castle became the subject of major restoration, reconstruction, and conservation projects, as well as systematic archaeological investigation. These preservation efforts were impeded by the deteriorated condition of the original brickwork and by the limited availability of appropriate methodologies and theoretical literature. Nonetheless, owing to the scope and continuity of these interventions, Turaida Castle has become one of the most frequently visited heritage sites in Latvia, attracting both international and domestic visitors from the 1960s to the present. The article outlines the principal achievements of the site’s preservation practices and identifies key challenges and shortcomings that have emerged throughout the process. Full article

Background: This study presents the sequencing and analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genomes from nine early medieval horse remains excavated across archaeological sites in Silesia region in present day Poland. Methods: Using aDNA extraction protocols optimized for short fragments, combined with target enrichment and high-throughput sequencing, we reconstructed partial mtDNA sequences for seven of the specimens. Results: The authenticity of the aDNA was confirmed through damage pattern analysis. Phylogenetic reconstruction revealed that the specimens belonged to six distinct mtDNA lineages (B, D, E, G, L, and M), indicating a high level of mitochondrial diversity within medieval Silesian horse population. Conclusions: These findings highlight the extensive mtDNA variability among domestic horses, reflecting the diversity of their ancestral populations rather than modern breed differentiation. This research enhances our understanding of horse population structure in medieval Europe, emphasizing the genetic complexity present during this period. Full article

This paper presents the results of a comprehensive technological study of three bronze sculptures from the Jin Empire period (1115–1234 AD) from the collection of the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography at the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IHAE FEB RAS). Using photon-counting computed tomography (PCCT) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), the production techniques were reconstructed, differences in alloy composition were identified, and specific features of the casting processes were determined. Tomographic analysis revealed two fundamentally different manufacturing approaches: a multi-stage technology involving the use of different alloys and the assembly of separately cast elements, and a single-cast technology with a homogeneous structure. Elemental analysis of the three sculptures using EDS demonstrated significant compositional variability—from 21% to 67% copper and from 9% to 69% tin in different parts of the objects—confirming the complexity of the technological processes. An expanded study of 20 bronze sculptures using portable X-ray fluorescence analysis (pXRF) allowed for the identification of four typological alloy groups: classic balanced lead–tin bronzes (Cu 30–58%, Sn 16–23%, Pb 16–28%), high-lead bronzes (Pb up to 52%), high-tin bronzes (Sn up to 30%), and low-tin alloys (Sn less than 11%). The morphological features of the sculptures suggest one of their possible interpretations as ancestor spirits used in ritual practices. The research findings contribute to the study of Jurchen metallurgical traditions and demonstrate the potential of interdisciplinary, non-destructive analytical methods for reconstructing the technological, social, and cultural aspects of medieval Far Eastern societies. Full article

Regarding the functions of Cave 285 at the Mogao Caves 莫高窟 during the Western Wei period, scholars have generally considered it a meditation cave. The main chamber has four small chambers each on the southern and northern walls, believed to serve as meditation spaces. However, a close examination of the architectural features of these eight small chambers reveals that they may have had another purpose, fundamentally different from meditation. Close visual analysis shows that the lintels of each small chamber are adorned with honeysuckle patterns, between which stand two birds forming paired bird images, with considerable variation in the types of birds. The lintel imagery of the eight small chambers in Cave 285 differs from the honeysuckle and lotus-rebirth themes commonly emphasized in the lintel designs of the main niches of contemporaneous caves that highlight the significance of the Pure Land of the Buddha. It also does not align with the flame-pattern-dominated designs seen in other niches on various faces of the central pillar during this period. This indicates a difference in symbolic meaning. At the same time, the paired birds or individual birds appear in depictions of the Pure Land on the truncated-pyramidal ceilings of caves from the same period, alongside images of honeysuckle, lotus-born beings, celestial beings, winged deities, jewels, and animals. Similarly, paired birds (such as parrots, vermilion birds, phoenixes, and bluebirds) found on the walls, heavenly gates, and screens of the Wei and Jin dynasty tombs in Dunhuang symbolize the deceased’s ascension to immortality. The frequent appearance of paired birds on lintels, doors, door frames, and walls outside the doors of tombs from the medieval period signifies the deceased’s ascension to immortality. Considering the funerary nature of the eight small chambers in Cave 285 and the symbolic meaning and development trajectory of paired birds in tombs and caves during the medieval period, the eight pairs of birds on the lintels of these small chambers were meant to aid the deceased’s soul in its ascension to immortality and rebirth in the Pure Land. Full article

Background/Objectives: Southeastern Europe and Croatia have served as a genetic crossroads between the Near East and Europe since prehistoric times, shaped by numerous and repeated migrations. By integrating 19 newly generated ancient genomes with 285 previously published ancient genomes from Croatia, we investigated patterns of maternal and paternal landscapes from the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages through to the Antiquity and medieval periods, as well as the modern Croatian population. Methods: Ancient DNA extraction from human remains and library preparation were conducted in dedicated clean-room facilities, followed by high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform. Sequencing data were analyzed with established pipelines to determine mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups and the genetic sex of individuals. Results: New ancient data reveal a predominantly European maternal profile, dominated by haplogroups H, U, and HV0, whereas Y-chromosomal lineages are characterized by J subclades and R1a, with limited representation of R1b and the absence of I2a. When combined with published ancient Croatian genomes, the results reveal similar haplogroup diversity and patterns, as well as the expansion of mtDNA haplogroup H over time and a substantial increase in Y-chromosome R1a and I2a haplogroup frequency from the prehistoric to the modern period. Conclusions: Although the analyzed samples are heterogeneous and originate from different historical periods, their genetic signatures conform to the broader patterns expected for the region. In a wider context, the ancient Croatian mitochondrial data reveal stronger genetic persistence from prehistory to modern times, unlike paternal lineages, which show significantly higher divergence. Full article

This article examines the evolution of heraldic memory and genealogical consciousness within the Czerny family from the Middle Ages to the 20th century. Focusing on this single lineage makes it possible to trace, in a longue durée perspective, how heraldic narratives emerged, were transformed, and became embedded in family identity. The study employs a mixed methodology combining historical and genealogical analysis of municipal and noble registers, heraldic artefacts, epitaphs, and family archives with critical interpretation of early modern panegyrics and oral traditions. This approach enables reconstruction of both material and symbolic aspects of heraldic memory and its adaptation to changing political and social contexts. The findings reveal three major patterns. First, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Czerny (Szwarc/Czarny) family consolidated its noble status by linking the Nowina coat of arms to heroic myths, especially after the death of Mikołaj Czerny at Pskov. Second, in the 17th century, Michał Czerny introduced the “Szwarcenberg” element to the surname, signifying aspirations to aristocratic prestige rather than actual heraldic adoption. Third, these narratives persisted in epitaphs, literary texts, and oral tradition into the modern period. The case illustrates how heraldic memory operated as a dynamic instrument of symbolic self-legitimation among the Polish nobility. Full article

Şerefeddin Sabuncuoğlu (c. 1385–1470) was one of the most prominent surgeons of the early Ottoman period, particularly noted for his systematic and visually documented surgical approaches to breast tissue. His principal work, Cerrahiyyetü’l-Hâniyye, is based on the 30th volume of the Andalusian physician al-Zahrawi’s Kitab al-Tasrif, yet it goes well beyond a translation by incorporating Sabuncuoğlu’s clinical observations, experiential knowledge, and original surgical explanations. The text provides detailed descriptions of breast pathologies, including gynecomastia, and outlines diagnostic procedures, therapeutic strategies, surgical drainage methods, local wound-cleansing practices, and the definitions and uses of numerous surgical instruments, many of which are illustrated via miniatures. His second major work, Mücerrebnâme, is equally significant from a pharmacotherapeutic perspective, containing experiential prescriptions for swelling, inflammation, and painful breast lesions and reflecting the empirical reasoning he applied to drug-based treatments. Together, these two works portray Sabuncuoğlu as a versatile physician who combined operative techniques with pharmacological knowledge, offering a comprehensive view of medical practice in the early Ottoman period. His detailed account of gynecomastia surgery, supported by observations on pre- and postoperative care, represents an important source for understanding both medieval surgical practice and the development of anatomical and therapeutic knowledge in the Islamic medical tradition. Full article

Background: While archaeological evidence is crucial for understanding the origins of ancient rose varieties in Western Europe, the botanical composition of medieval Islamic gardens remains largely unknown. This study focuses on the rose cultivation at the 12th-century Almunia del Castillejo de Monteagudo in Murcia, Spain, a key Islamic site in al-Andalus. Methods: Morphometric analysis and Bayesian hypothesis testing were applied to characterize rose prickle remains recovered from the site. The prickles were found in stratigraphic contexts above the original garden and yielded post-medieval radiocarbon dates (18th–19th centuries AD). The morphological parameters of the archaeological specimens were statistically compared against reference collections of known rose species to determine their probable botanical origins. Results: The analysis identified two distinct prickle morphotypes. Statistical comparisons indicate these correspond to the white musk rose (Rosa moschata Herrm.) and to yellow roses from the Rosa foetida Herrm. complex (including R. lutea Mill. var. persiana Lem.). Both species are historic introductions from West Asia. The morphometric parameters demonstrated significant diagnostic value for the species-level identification of archaeological rose remains. Conclusion: Despite the post-medieval date of the prickles, the presence of R. moschata and R. foetida suggests the continuity of cultivation for rose species originally already known during the medieval Islamic period. This provides direct archaeological evidence for the role of al-Andalus gardens in the dissemination of West Asian rose diversity, highlighting the lasting impact of medieval Islamic horticulture on the Iberian Peninsula. Full article

Surveys and excavations carried out between 2004 and 2019 around the Vlach town of Samarina, in the Pindos Mountains of Western Macedonia (Greece), have yielded potsherds that can be attributed to different historical periods. The data collected so far suggest a long human presence in this region of the northern Pindos spanning from the Middle Pleistocene to the late Middle Ages. The ceramic fragments from the Historical Camp (HC), Kirkouri (KRK), the Holy Cross Church (SMC), Mt. Anitsa (Anitsa), Avgo (VGO), the Mirminda Pass (VLC), Mt. Vasilitsa (VSL), and the saddle between Mts. Bogdhani and Gurguliu have been studied in detail. Despite their fragmentary state, a database has been created with the morphological and typological characteristics of the potsherds and the sites from which they were retrieved. Coarse and fine ware potsherds have been identified. According to their manufacturing characteristics, they can be attributed to different Roman and medieval periods. A diassarion of the Larissa mint shows that connections between the mountain highlands and the lowlands were already active during the period of Emperor Augustus. The Samarina potsherds are probably related to the movements of Vlach shepherds, who spent long periods in these mountains with their flocks. This impression is confirmed by the presence of one vessel wall fragment which was directly in contact with fire and a few small vessel bases. The presence of ceramic vases is closely linked to the transportation of primary or secondary food supplies in a pre-cooked form or as liquids. We know that Vlach shepherds, as many other groups of Eurasian shepherds, never manufactured ceramic vessels even in their villages. Instead, they used different types of wooden and metal containers for cooking, drinking, and other tasks associated with pastoral activities, such as keeping milk and making cheese and butter, for example. Following these observations, our aim has been to define the vessel types used by the Vlach shepherds, which exhibit some kind of uniformity from the Roman to the Middle Ages. Full article

Westerlies Asia, which includes arid Central Asia (ACA) and arid West Asia (AWA), is characterized by water vapor transport primarily controlled by the westerlies. Recent studies have identified a dipole pattern in hydroclimate variability between ACA and AWA during both the Holocene and modern period. However, it remains unclear whether such a dipole pattern persisted over the past millennium. Our findings demonstrate that the PMIP4 multi-model simulations reveal a dipole precipitation pattern between arid Central Asia and arid West Asia over the past millennium. During the Little Ice Age (LIA), annual precipitation increased in ACA but decreased in AWA, while the opposite pattern occurred during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA). This dipole precipitation pattern is attributed to seasonal differences: increased spring precipitation in ACA together with decreased summer precipitation in AWA shaped the annual precipitation anomaly during the Little Ice Age, with a reversed regime during the Medieval Climate Anomaly. Mechanistically, a negative North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) phase during LIA springs shifted the westerly moisture transport southward, enhancing moisture supply to ACA and increasing the precipitation there. In contrast, during LIA summers, a positive NAO phase displaced the westerly northward, reducing moisture advection to AWA, while a strengthened Azores High promoted moisture outflow and descending motion, suppressing precipitation. These findings offer a paleo-hydroclimatic basis for anticipating alternating dry-wet regimes between subregions, which can inform adaptive water allocation strategies, drought and flood preparedness, and long-term infrastructure planning across Westerlies Asia in a warming world. Full article

Severe floods such as in the Ahr valley in July 2021 are one of the leading causes of fatalities from natural disaster. Riverine and lacustrine floods are caused by a sudden flux of water masses from heavy rainfall or snowmelts. These surface water runoff events significantly enhance erosion of detrital material in the catchment, which is then deposited in natural sinks such as lakes. We reconstructed flood phases from Eifel maar lakes over the last 60,000 years and compared flood behavior with regional riverine flood data covering the past 1000 years. Multi-centennial flood cycles persisted throughout the Holocene with durations of flood-poor periods significantly decreasing around 3700 years ago due to human activity in the Eifel region. Holocene flood frequency peaked in the 13th and 14th centuries during the medieval agricultural revolution. Late Pleistocene flood phases occurred during the Younger Dryas and Heinrich stadials and represent surface runoff events in cold and dry climates. As flood behavior is strongly affected not only by increased water supply but also by soil stability and erosion processes in the catchment area, flood phases reflect shifts in the prevailing climate conditions and vegetation cover, either through natural steppe formation or human impact. Full article

Human-sourced emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the Earth’s atmosphere have been implicated in contemporary global warming, based mainly on computer modeling. Growing empirical evidence reviewed here supports the alternative hypothesis that global climate change is governed primarily by a natural climate cycle, the Antarctic Oscillation. This powerful pressure-wind-temperature cycle is energized in the Southern Ocean and teleconnects worldwide to cause global multidecadal warm periods like the present, each followed historically by a multidecadal cold period, which now appears imminent. The Antarctic Oscillation is modulated on a thousand-year schedule to create longer climate cycles, including the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age, which are coupled with the rise and fall, respectively, of human civilizations. Future projection of these ancient climate rhythms enables long-term empirical climate forecasting. Although human-sourced CO₂ emissions play little role in climate change, they pose an existential threat to global biodiversity. Past mass extinctions were caused by natural CO₂ surges that acidified the ocean, killed oxygen-producing plankton, and induced global suffocation. Current human-sourced CO₂ emissions are comparable in volume but hundreds of thousands of times faster. Diverse evidence suggests that the consequent ocean acidification is destroying contemporary marine phytoplankton, corals, and calcifying algae. The resulting global oxygen deprivation could smother higher life forms, including people, by 2100 unless net human-induced CO₂ emissions into the atmosphere are ended urgently. Full article

Holy Week, the most significant period of the Christian liturgical year, was marked by solemn and complex rituals enacted within the sacred spaces of medieval religious communities. In the case of Cistercian female monasteries, scholarly attention has largely centered on Easter dramatic representations such as the Depositio or the Visitatio Sepulchri, while the official liturgy—Hours, Masses, processions, and the official rituals of the Easter Triduum—has remained comparatively understudied. This article addresses that gap by examining the Holy Week liturgy as performed by the Cistercian nuns of Lichtenthal (Baden-Baden, Germany), on the basis of an exceptional and understudied source: the original Ecclesiastica Officia (mid-13th century, Karlsruhe, Badisches Generallandesarchiv, 65/323). Containing comprehensive normative prescriptions for the Easter liturgy adapted for the Lichtenthal community, this manuscript enables a detailed reconstruction of the nuns’ primary collective experiences during these days. The study brings together evidence from architecture, works of art, and liturgical books, while integrating insights from sensory studies, in order to underscore the bodily and multi-sensory dimensions of the rituals. In doing so, it highlights the implications of the nuns’ active participation in Holy Week ceremonies and contributes to a deeper understanding of medieval female religious ritual experience, challenging conventional notions of enclosure and liturgical practice. Full article

This study presents a paleopathological analysis of individual T4.2 from the archaeological site of the castle of Zorita de los Canes (Guadalajara, Spain). The individual exhibits ultradolichocephaly and was dated between the 13th and 15th centuries. Based on the context, the individual could have been a member of the military–religious Order of Calatrava. Standard bioanthropological and paleopathological methods were applied. The results indicate a male aged between 45 and 49 years with a maximum cranial length and width of 230 mm and 122 mm, respectively. The cranial index (53%) allows him to be classified as ultradolichocephalic. The remains present craniosynostosis at the sagittal, squamosal and sphenofrontal sutures, together with underdevelopment of the skull base width and a dolichognathic mandible with the possible presence of type III prognathism. The left hemimandible and hemimaxilla display a large amount of tartar covering the occlusal, labial and lingual areas of the teeth completely. The right hemimandible and hemimaxilla exhibit almost no tartar, and some teeth were lost in vivo. In addition, two stab wounds—to the external occipital protuberance and to the left temple—as well as a contused injury in the left tibia, can be observed without evidence of bone remodeling. Differential diagnosis indicates a case consistent with Crouzon syndrome. This individual is of particular significance because he was a possibly knight of the Order of Calatrava who presents a syndromic craniosynostosis consistent with Crouzon syndrome and exhibits lesions, which may suggest that he could have died in battle. Full article

Archaeological investigations of ancient climate change have become an important focus for many researchers. A number of studies have focused on scientific techniques to identify the intricate details of the event, and the subsequent impact of these climatic changes on the ecological landscape. These more scientifically oriented studies have allowed the present authors to investigate a more subtle impact on the landscape: trade disruption during ancient climate crises viewed from the rural settlement of Çadır Höyük on the north central Anatolian plateau. The ebb and flow of trade networks in the past can be tied to many external sociopolitical and socioeconomic factors that may have had little to do with the air outside. We investigate here whether climate change was a significant factor that interfered with trade networks during three periods: The 4th millennium BCE Late Chalcolithic (the 5.2 ka climatic event); the late 2nd millennium BCE (3.2 ka climatic event); and the Medieval Warm Period from the 10th to the 13th century CE. This study presents the evidence for regular, and sometimes robust, trade or provision of goods and resources prior to these three climate events, and the disruption or dissolution of these during the height of each climate crisis, particularly in the earlier two periods; in the last period, climate variability was only one of many factors affecting trade networks on the plateau. We profile how the residents of ancient Çadır Höyük managed these intermittent “empty shelves” and filled in gaps using local resources and ingenuity. Full article