The Symbolic Meaning of the Paired Birds on the Eight Lintels on the Southern and Northern Walls of Mogao Cave 285: Questioning the Meditative Function of the Cave

Abstract

Regarding the functions of Cave 285 at the Mogao Caves 莫高窟 during the Western Wei period, scholars have generally considered it a meditation cave. The main chamber has four small chambers each on the southern and northern walls, believed to serve as meditation spaces. However, a close examination of the architectural features of these eight small chambers reveals that they may have had another purpose, fundamentally different from meditation. Close visual analysis shows that the lintels of each small chamber are adorned with honeysuckle patterns, between which stand two birds forming paired bird images, with considerable variation in the types of birds. The lintel imagery of the eight small chambers in Cave 285 differs from the honeysuckle and lotus-rebirth themes commonly emphasized in the lintel designs of the main niches of contemporaneous caves that highlight the significance of the Pure Land of the Buddha. It also does not align with the flame-pattern-dominated designs seen in other niches on various faces of the central pillar during this period. This indicates a difference in symbolic meaning. At the same time, the paired birds or individual birds appear in depictions of the Pure Land on the truncated-pyramidal ceilings of caves from the same period, alongside images of honeysuckle, lotus-born beings, celestial beings, winged deities, jewels, and animals. Similarly, paired birds (such as parrots, vermilion birds, phoenixes, and bluebirds) found on the walls, heavenly gates, and screens of the Wei and Jin dynasty tombs in Dunhuang symbolize the deceased’s ascension to immortality. The frequent appearance of paired birds on lintels, doors, door frames, and walls outside the doors of tombs from the medieval period signifies the deceased’s ascension to immortality. Considering the funerary nature of the eight small chambers in Cave 285 and the symbolic meaning and development trajectory of paired birds in tombs and caves during the medieval period, the eight pairs of birds on the lintels of these small chambers were meant to aid the deceased’s soul in its ascension to immortality and rebirth in the Pure Land.

1. Introduction

On the lower parts of the southern and northern walls of the main chamber of Cave 285 at the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, dating to the Western Wei period, there are four small chambers on each side. Each of these chambers is large enough to accommodate a single person for meditation. These chambers have no easily visible wall paintings and have long been referred to as meditation chambers. They are integral parts of the main chamber, with their outer walls adorned with narrative paintings, the thousands Buddhas, standing Bodhisattvas, honeysuckle borders, and guardian yakshas, reflecting the overall design concept from the initial construction. Although the interiors of these small chambers have plain walls (with faint haloed figures), their lintels1 are meticulously decorated and occupy a significant portion of the southern and northern walls, making them prominent (Figure 1)2. The lintels of the eight small chambers are similar in design: honeysuckle patterns on arch-shaped door beams, flame or honeysuckle borders, and paired birds standing symmetrically between the honeysuckle motifs. The species of birds on the lintels vary: on the southern wall from east to west are pairs of phoenixes, parrots, pheasants (previously misidentified as ostriches and guinea fowls), and peacocks; on the northern wall from east to west are pairs of parrots, phoenixes, pigeons, and peacocks (Figure 2). The significance of the paired birds on the lintels of the eight small chambers has not been the subject of detailed research. Scholars have only noted that the honeysuckle patterns3 and paired birds4 used as decorative motifs on the lintels are common in the niches of Northern Dynasties caves.

Generally speaking, in academic circles, it is a well-accepted notion that the lintel imagery of the eight small chambers on the southern and northern walls of Cave 285 is comparable to similar subjects in Northern Dynasties caves, particularly the niche lintels of the principal niches where the main Buddha statues are housed. Therefore, until now, the unique significance of these eight lintels has not been recognized, and no one has specifically discussed their importance in interpreting the overall function and concept of Cave 285. Thus, most researchers still tend to regard Cave 285 as a meditation cave for Buddhist monks. Consequently, their focus remains on the Buddhist attributes of the eight small chambers, without considering the lintel decorations as a basis for exploring functions beyond meditation.

In fact, the presence of paired birds in each lintel, without exception, emphasizes or explains the unique function and concept of these eight small chambers. Considering the earlier phenomenon of paired birds appearing on mural bricks and in the tomb chamber canopy representing the space where the tomb owner is located in local Wei and Jin tombs in Dunhuang, researchers have referred to this as “birds depending on the soul.” This can be specifically related to the traditional Central Plains burial culture, where mural paintings feature divine birds and auspicious beasts, “the combination of rare and exotic local products of Dunhuang and the Western Regions,” “immortalization” in funeral culture, and the symbol of parrots as representations of the dwelling place of the deceased during the Wei and Jin periods5. Therefore, if we can break free from the constraints of traditional Buddhist cave image concepts and fully integrate the basic concept and meaning of tomb images expressing the deceased’s ascension to immortality, we may find new interpretations of the reasons for and significance of the eight pairs of birds depicted on the door lintels of the eight small chambers in Cave 285. This, in turn, could help us think about the function and ideology of Cave 285 from a completely different perspective.

This paper critically examines the traditional academic view that Cave 285 is a meditation cave. By exploring the interactions and connections between Buddhist cave temples and secular traditional tombs, the study proposes a new interpretative framework, offering an alternative perspective on the meditation cave hypothesis.

2. Basic Attributes of the Themes of Cave Niche Lintel Imagery

The “entrance lintel” discussed in this article is consistent with the “niche lintel” in Buddhist caves in terms of spatial relationship and meaning. Therefore, it is first necessary to conduct a broad examination of the “niche lintel” in Buddhist caves from a macro perspective.

A niche lintel is a common architectural element found on Buddhist rock caves, stelae, and pagodas, positioned at the upper center outside the small niche (or small chamber) where a main image resides. It serves as an extension of the niche or chamber space of the main image and can be considered an auxiliary component of the main Buddha’s niche or chamber. The core purpose of its imagery is to elaborate upon the attributes of the Buddha’s world and the concept of rebirth in the Pure Land as expressed by the main Buddha. This feature was popular during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties period. However, by the Sui and Tang periods, niche lintels were no longer prevalent in caves but were mainly found on pagodas and Buddhist halls.

Regarding the lintel decoration, similar architectural adornments became popular in Gandhara sculptures, monk cells in early Indian caves, vihāra meditation caves, and caves from the 4th to 5th centuries in the Kucha region. However, in terms of the overall richness of decorative themes, the contemporaneous sculptures and steles from the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties, as well as caves in Kucha, Yungang, Dunhuang, and Longmen, are more representative. In other words, after reaching the Han region, the symbolic meaning of lintel decoration further expanded.

The imagery on niche lintels of Northern Dynasties caves is represented by the Dunhuang, Yungang, and Longmen caves. Northern Dynasties caves at Dunhuang include motifs such as honeysuckle, lotus, and scenes of rebirth or celestial musicians. Some lintels feature simple honeysuckle or flame patterns, with borders primarily decorated with honeysuckle and flame motifs. Generally, the niche lintels on the front face of the central pillars in the Northern Dynasties caves are rich in themes and complex in content, while the niche lintels of the upper and lower registers on other faces are much simpler in their thematic content. Additionally, some caves even feature animals in the niche lintels, such as the two playful monkeys on the honeysuckle (Figure 3) on the niche lintel in Cave 299 from the Northern Zhou at Mogao. In the Yungang Caves, niche lintels often feature simple compositions filled with five Buddhas, seven Buddhas, or multiple Buddhas. For instance, the niche lintel on the southern side of the third level of the west wall in Cave 11 contains five seated Buddhas (Figure 4). Another niche lintel in the same cave, on the same wall and level, features seven seated Buddhas. Additionally, there are niche lintels that include celestial beings or flying Apsaras and floral garlands hanging down to jointly depict the heavenly world, such as the niche lintel on the western side of the second level of the south wall in Cave 13 (Figure 5) and the niche lintel on the southern side of the second level of the west wall in Cave 15 (Figure 6)6. The thematic content of niche lintels in the Northern Dynasties caves of Longmen is largely similar to that of contemporary Yungang and Dunhuang. In addition to the honeysuckle, flames, lotus-born, seated Buddhas, and celestial musicians found in Yungang and Dunhuang, Longmen niche lintels also feature combinations of seated Buddhas, celestial musicians, wish-fulfilling jewels, or Boshan incense burners. An example is the first niche on the upper level of the southern wall of Guyang Cave, which contains the statue of the monk Huizhen (Figure 7). Additionally, some niche lintels depict symmetrical images of Mañjuśrī and Vimalakīrti’s inquiry, as seen in the Wei Zi Cave (Figure 8). Moreover, in the Longmen Grottoes, niche lintels often feature multiple groups of Buddhas, disciples, or Bodhisattvas, with celestial musicians appearing on the upper sides outside the niche lintels7.

Overall, the patterns of honeysuckle, lotuses, lotus-born beings, celestial musicians, celestial beings, flames, Buddhas, and jeweled pearls appearing in niche lintels are all related to the Buddhist concepts of the Buddha Land and Pure Land. In Dunhuang, this is most evidently manifested in the concept and ideology of rebirth in the Pure Land (Yoshimura 2001).

In Cave 285, the main niche on the west wall, which houses the central Buddha image, features honeysuckle and lotus-born celestial musicians within the niche lintel, with honeysuckle patterns adorning the edges (Figure 9). The appearance of lotus-born celestial musicians in the niche lintel is a popular theme in the niche lintels of Northern Dynasties caves at Dunhuang. As a unique manifestation of the lotus-born, appearing in the niche lintel of the central Buddha image, it evidently conveys the fundamental concept of rebirth in the Pure Land. This is exemplified by the niche lintel imagery of the main niche on the central pillar in Cave 288 at Mogao Grottoes from the Western Wei period, which, instead of depicting honeysuckle and lotuses, shows ten celestial beings surrounding a lotus-born child, clearly illustrating Pure Land ideology (Figure 10). Additionally, considering the increasing emphasis on the musical and dance attributes of lotus-born figures in the niche lintels of Northern Dynasty caves at Dunhuang, exemplified by the imagery of honeysuckle lotus-born celestial musicians in the central niche lintel of the central pillar in Cave 428 from the Northern Zhou period (Figure 11), it seems plausible to infer that during the Northern Dynasties at Dunhuang, the niche lintel of the central Buddha image was regarded as a representation of the Pure Land. The frequent depiction of various forms of lotus-born figures underscores the visual expression of rebirth in the Pure Land.

Thus, from a macro perspective of Buddhist art during the Northern Dynasties, it is evident that the central theme of cave or statue niche lintels from this period was the depiction of the Pure Land. These images presented the ideal world in which the central Buddha resides.

During the Sui dynasty, double-layered open niches became popular in Dunhuang. The inner niche had only a single border decoration, while the outer niche featured a lintel. The inner decoration primarily consisted of flame motifs, though some niches still retained themes of the Pure Land from the Northern Dynasties. For instance, the niche of Cave 277 at Mogao features a niche beam of linked pearls, a lintel of honeysuckle and lotus motifs, with a central lotus-born figure, and an outer layer of flame motifs, with a central wish-fulfilling jewel (cintāmaṇi) (Figure 12). Similarly, the niche lintel in Cave 390 displays comparable content: a central lotus-born figure of a Bodhisattva, surrounded by flame motifs, with a central wish-fulfilling jewel and dragon heads on the niche beam, a common motif from the Northern Dynasties (Figure 13). During the Tang dynasty, open niches and niches with canopy-like roofs no longer featured niche lintels, being decorated only with a single border. In the mid-Tang period, some canopy-roof niches adopted a pagoda-shaped design, resembling complex brick-and-wood structures. This can be seen in Mogao Caves 358, 359 (Figure 14), 360, and 361 (Figure 15), where these pagoda niches emerged. Overall, by the Tang dynasty, the border decorations of niches at Mogao Grottoes could hardly be associated with the Pure Land. At most, they served as a spatial demarcation of an independent unit within the Buddha’s world depicted inside the niche.

Thus, the niche lintel architectural form and decorative themes popular during the Northern Dynasties were gradually simplified during the Sui dynasty and eventually disappeared by the Tang dynasty. However, various Buddha hall-shaped pagodas in the Tang dynasty from the Central Plains region still featured lintel architectural components and decorative themes. These pagodas often had plain lintels above the doors of the Buddha halls, occasionally adorned with beast faces. Typically, the lintel included a beast face at the apex, flanked by two downward-flying dragons, with flying Apsaras above the dragons. An example is the Buddhist-hall-shaped pagoda from the twelfth year of the Kaiyuan era (724) in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago (Figure 16). Dr. Zhu Jixiang has conducted a comprehensive investigation of such pagodas and their lintel-related images, suggesting that the decorative themes of these pagoda lintels retained the influence of the Northern Dynasties, still emphasizing the Buddhist heavenly world expressed by the statues within the pagodas (Zhu 2021).

Therefore, the honeysuckle, paired birds, and flame motifs on the lintels of the eight small chambers on the northern and southern walls of Cave 285 could easily be interpreted as depictions of the Pure Land where the central Buddha resides. However, since these eight small chambers do not contain clear images of a central Buddha and the lintel paintings lack depictions of lotus-born beings, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, or celestial beings, drawing such a conclusion would not be sufficiently supported or convincing.

To relate the honeysuckle, paired birds, and flame motifs on the lintels of the eight small chambers in Cave 285 to the forms, functions, and meanings of previously discussed niche lintels that have expressed the Pure Land concept since the Northern Dynasties, we must address the function of these eight small chambers. This is precisely the issue that will be discussed next.

3. The Function of the Eight Small Chambers and the Significance of Their Lintel Imagery

Traditional niche lintel imagery serves as a spatial extension of the niche containing the central statue, as well as an interpretation of the Buddha Land within. However, the lintel imagery of the eight small chambers in Cave 285, discussed in this paper, differs in that it cannot be clearly linked to corresponding images within the niches. Early scholars proposed that Cave 285 might correspond to the “Eight Golden Light Caves of the Song Clan” (宋家八金光窟) (D. Ma 1996) mentioned in the 951 document “List of Caves for Distributing Lanterns during the Light Up on the Eighth Day of the Twelfth Month” (腊八燃灯分配窟龛名数), considering the presence of the eight small chambers within the cave. But the specific imagery content of the “Eight Golden Lights” remains unclear.

If the honeysuckle and flame motifs in the eight lintel images are common themes in other Northern Dynasty niche lintels, both carrying meanings of rebirth and regeneration, they can be easily understood as typical niche imagery. However, the consistent appearance of paired bird images in all eight lintels likely reflects the unique spatial significance of these small chambers. Therefore, to understand the symbolic meaning of the paired bird motifs, it is first necessary to address the function of these eight small chambers.

For a long time, the academic community has identified Cave 285 as a vihāra-type meditation cave. The core reason for this identification lies in the eight small chambers on the north and south walls of the main chamber, traditionally considered as spaces for monks to practice meditation (Xiao 1989; S. Ma 2014; D. Ma 1996; Zhao 2006). Su Bai believed that “these small niches were places where monks meditated, also known as monks’ rooms” (Su 1956). Sudo Hirotoshi provided more detailed and in-depth discussions based on the images of meditating monks on the cave ceiling (Sudo 1990). Besides the mainstream interpretation of the cave as a meditation space, other scholars have offered noteworthy opinions on the function of Cave 285. Higashiyama Kengo suggested that Cave 285 might have been an ordination-platform cave8, while Lai Pengju provided more specific arguments, pointing out that Cave 285, as an ordination-platform cave in Dunhuang, was a place where local Buddhist monastic communities conferred precepts on monks, with the eight small chambers serving as positions for the seven witnessing teachers during the ordination ceremony (Lai 2009). However, recent C-14 dating by the Dunhuang Research Academy’s Conservation Institute indicates that the central altar base dates to the Western Xia period (Hiromi et al. 2008; Guo et al. 2018), not the Northern Dynasties, thus refuting the ordination-platform cave theory. Zhang Yuanlin elaborated on the idea of Cave 285 as a practice hall for the “Lotus-Flower Samādhi” meditation method, describing it as “a hall cave with typical meditation properties” (Y. Zhang 2017). This shows the enduring influence of the meditation cave concept on the understanding of Cave 285.

It is worth mentioning that there are different views in academia. The Japanese scholar Katsumi Okimoto does not believe that the eight small chambers inside Cave 285 are meditation chambers. After a simple comparison with the seated mummification caves in the northern area of Mogao, he suggests, “Considering everything, a more suitable view is that Cave 285, often called a meditation cave, is actually a seated mummification cave, perhaps constructed for venerating deceased eminent monks” (Okimoto 2006). This is a very insightful assertion, although Okimoto did not further elaborate on this.

The latest research by Yamabe Nobuyoshi and Zhao Li first noted the faint images resembling eminent monks visible under the white plaster layer on the walls of the eight small chambers, which is the characteristic of a ‘memorial cave.’ Therefore, they questioned the cave’s function as a meditation cave (Yamabe and Zhao 2020).

Inspired by this view, we have also noted the fact that Dunhuang people in the Western Xia period used some of the eight small chambers that had been built in the beginning of the Western Wei Dynasty in Cave 285 as a space for Buddhist monks’ burial, and closed the niche door in the form of reliquary stūpas. Additionally, a five-tiered circular altar was established in the center of the cave, reflecting a clear concept of liberation after death. This suggests that during the Western Xia period, Cave 285 was completely treated as a burial cave, rather than as a traditional worship cave or a meditation cave in the conventional sense. Inspired by the Western Xia people’s use of Cave 285 as a burial site, on the basis of a large number of previous research results, we once again investigate the combination of cave images and their significance, especially the appearance of a large number of cave tops and the design and drawing of a large number of “heavenly” images expressing the idea of “ascending to immortality” in Han and Jin tombs, showing the strong concept of Buddhism in the cave. Ultimately, we can conclude that during the Northern Dynasties, Cave 285 served as a space for the collective burial of eminent monks and potentially became accessible to broader layers of society’s faithful, making it a semi-open collective burial site for eminent monks, with the eight small chambers serving as spaces for the placement of monks’ relics (Sha 2023).

To understand the use of the eight small chambers, we must begin with their architectural space. Although there are no prominent mural paintings inside, careful observation on site reveals faint images of monks with halos on the rear walls of each small chamber, under a layer of chalk powder9. The triangular flames and the halo are relatively clear, without accompanying attendants (Figure 17). While it is difficult to determine the era of these images, given that they are under the whitewash and that triangular back screens were only popular during the Northern Liang, Northern Wei, and Western Wei periods at Dunhuang, they likely belong to the original early works. Why depict a meditating monk on the rear wall of these small chambers and then cover it with whitewash? If the whitewash is a later addition, it suggests that the monk images were intended to accompany statues set within the chambers. If these niches, as I have specifically argued, served as memorial cells for eminent monks, with the depiction of monks with halos and triangular back screens, it clearly signifies revered or saintly monks. As burial spaces, this arrangement aligns with the phenomenon seen in the Tang dynasty burial caves at Longmen, where deceased individuals and Buddha images coexist within the same chamber (N. Zhang 1991; Lü and Yang 1999; Liu 2012)—a method of burial that denotes a coexistence of the divine and the earthly, a rare remnant from the early Northern Dynasties rock caves.

Overall, considering the ceiling of the cave is rich with images from Han and Jin traditional secular tomb traditions of ascent to immortality, and their seamless integration within the Buddhist cave context, we can confidently assert that the creation of Cave 285 involved a deliberate design focused on the transcendence of high monks to the heavenly Pure Land and the divine Buddha realm. This space was specifically designed with a strong function of liberating the souls of the deceased, where ascending to a heavenly kingdom and rebirth in the divine Pure Land are its core ideological elements.

Thus, the eight small chambers used for the burial of the relics of eminent monks were originally designed to hold the cremated remains of monks, either in containers such as urns or boxes, or presented in the form of small stupa relics, or possibly as colored sculptures representing the true likenesses of the monks. This is similar to what we often see in the Mogao Caves, such as the memorial caves and images of eminent monks, exemplified by the colored statue in Cave 17, the Library Cave, where the relic ashes were bagged and placed inside the sculpture (Figure 18). If this is indeed the case, the original design of these eight chambers would have included monk images, and thus the corresponding lintel murals were intricately conceived with specific thematic content aimed at serving the monks’ passage to the Pure Land after their demise. This further extends the function of each small chamber through its imagery, which is precisely why I see motifs like honeysuckle and flame patterns, symbolizing life continuity and regeneration, as the main themes. As for the images of the eight pairs of birds interspersed among the honeysuckle, they too likely carry the same ideology and meaning, at least they can be understood as birds reborn from the honeysuckle, using vivid bird images to emphasize the symbolism of life continuity and regeneration.

4. Ascending to Immortality: The Imagery of Paired Birds in Secular Tomb Murals

In his book The Animal and the Daemon in Early China, Roel Sterckx insightfully noted, “Animals figured in several ways in Warring States and early imperial China. In addition to their practical role in husbandry, hunting, transport, and human consumption, animals were used as victims in sacrificial religion, figured as agents and objects in ritual practice, and served as symbols and metaphors in the creation of social models of authority. The animal world also provided a rich thesaurus for the expression of fundamental social, moral, religious, and cosmological ideas. Most studies that deal with the perception of animals and the human-animal relationship in ancient societies deal with the history of individual species and the socioeconomic role of animals, or they focus on the question of representation, image, and metaphor” (Sterckx 2002). Huaiyu Chen, discussing “Animals, Religion, and Order” at the outset, emphasizes “the irreplaceable importance of animals in the spread of ancient religions” (Chen 2012). Thus, the presence of paired bird imagery on the lintels of the eight small chambers in Cave 285, which were used to house the remains and images of monks, and their placement among the honeysuckle that symbolizes life continuation, demands consideration of the special meaning of these bird images, which should not be dismissed as mere decorative motifs. The honeysuckle pattern, recognized as a transformed plant motif influenced by Western cultures, is considered “a simplified form of the tree of life and fate” (Liang et al. 1933; Nagahiro 1937; Y. Wang 2017) and often appears alongside the lotus, which symbolizes Buddhist rebirth and purity. Therefore, its prevalent use in Northern Dynasties Buddhist caves also signifies the important imagery of celestial birth and Pure Land transformation during this period10.

In the Dunhuang region, imagery of paired birds11 predates Buddhist cave carvings and is already present in local secular tombs, mainly appearing on tomb mural bricks among a plethora of “divine birds and mystical beasts,” “exotic birds and strange animals,” and “auspicious beasts.” This motif is particularly concentrated in the Wei and Jin dynasty tomb complex at Foyemiao wan 佛爺廟灣. Taking the mural bricks from Tomb M37 as an example, they are arranged as follows from bottom to top (Figure 19)12:

• First Layer: In the center, two divine birds facing each other, each holding a plume; on the outer sides, two mystical birds facing each other, each holding a ribbon.
• Second Layer: In the center, two qilin facing each other; on the outer sides, two creatures receiving blessings.
• Third Layer: On each side, a rider facing backward shooting at a running sheep and bull, respectively.
• Fourth Layer: In the center, two vermillion birds facing each other; on the outer sides, two black tortoises facing each other.
• Fifth Layer: In the center, two celestial deer facing each other; on the outer sides, Boya playing the guqin and Ziqi listening, respectively.
• Sixth Layer: In the center, two elephants facing each other; on the outer sides, two parrots facing each other.
• Seventh Layer: In the center, two great-horned divine deer facing each other; on the outer sides, two blue dragons facing each other.
• Eighth Layer: Three inverted pheasant-shaped architectural elements; in the center, two beast faces.
• Ninth Layer: In the center, two beast faces; on the sides, Li Guang shooting a tiger.
• Tenth Layer: In the center, a strongman holding up a mountain; on the sides, two architectural elements fighting, and the outermost layer has two flying birds.
• Eleventh Layer: Archways connected in the center; the outermost layer has two flying birds.
• Twelfth Layer: Three standing columns; above the center column, a fangxiangshi official.

The mural in Tomb M37 displays at least six pairs of birds.

In Tomb M39, birds in flight are depicted on both the upper and lower sides of the arches on the tomb’s mural13. Tomb M118 features a pair of vermilion birds facing each other on the third layer’s outer section, while the central part of the eighth layer displays parrots facing each other on either side of a faux-wood arch14. Tomb M133 contains the most complex imagery, with its top layer featuring a gateway guarded by male and female figures, and characters with ox and chicken heads. The gate is decorated with a pair of tigers, and the arch above bears beast heads, prominently displaying features of the “Heavenly Gate.” Images of paired birds appear beneath this gateway across various levels; specifically, the fourth layer shows two dark birds facing each other, each holding a ribbon, the tenth layer features two red birds beside the depiction of Li Guang shooting a tiger, and the eleventh layer features parrots facing each other outside a faux-wood arch (Figure 20)15. Yan Zheng offers a crucial interpretation regarding the function of these mural walls in the Wei and Jin dynasty tombs of the Hexi region. He posits that these walls serve a dual purpose: they not only represent the grand entrance to the tomb, signifying the entrance to the deceased’s “next home,” but they also symbolize the passage through which the deceased ascends to immortality (Zheng 2016). Building on this, Yan Sun directly refers to these mural walls as “Heavenly Gates” and denotes them as “symbols of the celestial realm” (Y. Sun 2011). Zheng further elaborates on the theme of these walls, “The soul of the deceased begins its journey to immortality from the tomb’s gate, guided by the blue dragon and white tiger among the four celestial spirits, accompanied by nobles, led by Xi Wangmu, the Queen Mother of the West, and guarded by knights. Various auspicious signs descend from the heavens to greet him, and he passes through these signs to reach the final faux-gate, which resembles the ‘Heavenly Gates’ often depicted in Han dynasty murals. As the endpoint nears the surface, it seems as if the soul of the deceased truly ascends to the distant heavens from here” (Zheng 2016). Thus, including various images of paired birds within the richly depicted “divine birds and mystical beasts” and “exotic birds and strange animals,” all are considered celestial omens descending to guide the soul of the deceased upward. In ancient thought, birds, being creatures of the sky and symbols of yang, represent ascension. They inspire limitless imagination in their free flight between the heavens, thus being entrusted with the profound task of linking the great realms of life and death.

Regarding the images of paired parrots found on the canopy tops in the Wei and Jin dynasty tombs at Dunhuang’s Foyemiao wan, specifically in tombs M37 and M133 (Figure 21 and Figure 22), previous research by Yu Wang and Shuyi Chen has explored their significance. Their studies suggest that these images are linked to several aspects of mortuary culture: the traditional mural decorations of Central Plains burial featuring divine birds and auspicious beasts, “the combination of local Dunhuang and exotic Western Regions products,” the “immortalization” of funerary culture, and the symbolic representation of parrots during the Wei and Jin periods as “dwelling places of the deceased”16. This article emphasizes that the depiction of parrots at the top of the canopy where the tomb owner is located serves a similar function to the paired birds on the mural walls; they are meant to guide the soul of the deceased heavenwards.

Additionally, in Wei and Jin dynasty tomb chambers located in places like Jiayuguan and Gaotai, paired birds, often parrots, are painted on both sides of the arched passageways connecting the antechambers and the main chambers to the domed ceilings, and even on the external sides of the arches, such as in the antechamber’s south and west walls and the main chamber’s north and south walls of Jiayuguan New City’s M6 tomb (Figure 23)17. The appearance of these paired birds, distinctly different from the themes depicted on the walls of the antechambers and main chambers—which illustrate the daily life activities of the tomb owner, such as his fortress, travel, cooking, feasting, eating, agriculture, animal husbandry, slaughtering, and hunting—is always strategically positioned above the entrances on either side. Thus, these images are aligned with the discussion in this article that in burial contexts, they represent images intended to guide ascension to the heavens.

Another category of imagery related to the ascent of the tomb owner’s soul appears on the walls of Wei and Jin dynasty tombs in the Hexi Corridor, typically located at the upper sections where the antechamber or main chamber meets the ceiling, often depicted in the form of faux doors. These images commonly feature double doors with wind deities and ring-holding door knockers at the top and bottom, or pairs of tigers, as seen in Jiayuguan Xincheng’s M5, where one of the inscriptions reads “genei” 各内 (Figure 24)18. This form of depiction, seen in the uppermost layer of the M133 mural wall at Dunhuang’s Foyemiao wan, features double tigers above the gate, representing a “Heavenly Gate”—the passage through which the tomb owner’s soul travels to heaven. In the tombs of Jiayuguan and Gaotai, this type of gate is moved inside the tomb chamber, but the symbolic meaning remains the same. The decoration of the gate with double phoenixes and ring-holding beasts flanked by divine animals is a theme popular on tomb doors during the Han dynasty, especially common in Northern Shaanxi Han pictorial stone tombs (Figure 25). Often, the area above the tomb door’s lintel also features symmetrical divine beasts, phoenix birds, beast faces, and even figures such as Dong Wanggong, Xi Wangmu, the sun, and the moon, clearly conveying the theme of ascension into a celestial realm (Figure 26) (Suide Han Portrait Stone Exhibition Hall 2001). The tomb door way serves as the pathway for the tomb owner’s soul to enter and exit, as well as the essential route for ascension to heaven. Therefore, the imagery on Han dynasty tomb doors, consisting of divine birds, phoenixes, divine beasts, and beast-headed door knockers, is intended to facilitate the tomb owner’s ascension to immortality and can also be seen as a depiction of the tomb’s celestial landscape (Sofukawa 2022; Yin 2006).

The association of divine birds with the ascension of souls is widely evident in Han dynasty tombs, with one of the most representative examples being the silk painting from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui in Changsha. This painting depicts the complex path of the tomb owner’s soul ascending to heaven. Below the Heavenly Gate, the soul’s ascent is guarded by two divine birds flanking an umbrella-like object supported by a bat, a critical position that guides the soul into the Heavenly Gate (Figure 27a) (Hunan Provincial Museum and Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 1973; Yu 1985; An 1973; Z. Sun 1973; Wu 2001). Additionally, in the Sichuan region, Han pictorial stone sarcophagi frequently feature one or two birds at the “Heavenly Gate” portals (Figure 27b). In scenes depicting celestial realms, not only are double gates and mythical beasts present, but divine birds also feature prominently. Other scenes showing chariots approaching gates often include a divine bird leading the chariot into the gate. Furthermore, divine phoenix birds often appear in other parts of stone sarcophagi alongside other mythical creatures, and even alongside images of Xi Wangmu, or men and women kissing (Figure 27c). According to Erhu Luo’s research, all these depictions are intended to represent celestial realms or guide the tomb owner into such realms (Luo 2002).

If we further consider the frequent depiction of divine birds on the Money Trees in Han and Jin tombs, which symbolize ascension, as well as on Han and Jin bronze mirrors, Boshan incense burners, and Jiangnan soul vases, including the bird images on the gilded bronze bi 璧 discs unearthed in Chongqing’s Wushan from the Eastern Han, where Dong Wanggong and Xi Wangmu are framed by double gates with mythical beasts or divine birds on the sides, and a large bird above the phrase “Heavenly Gate” (Figure 28) (Chongqing Wushan County Cultural Relics Management Office and the Three Gorges Project Team of the Archaeological Institute, and Chinese Academy of Social Science 1998; Jiang 2007), we see that the large bird within the Heavenly Gate acts as an auspicious sign for those entering the gate. Already during the Warring States period, the coffin decorations in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng featured extremely intricate and varied dragons, including bird-headed dragons and avian-dragon hybrids, with two large birds specifically depicted on either side of the foot panels (Figure 29)19. These abstract lacquer coffin decoration images reflect early conceptions of life regeneration and ascension to immortality that were prevalent in the Han dynasty, a period during which the symbol of birds already held an crucial place. Birds played an extremely important role and function in the widespread Han and Jin period beliefs about ascension and immortality, undoubtedly related to birds’ ability to freely traverse the space between heaven and earth. In the ancient imagination, the sun was initially believed to be carried across the sky by a large bird, later symbolized by the three-legged crow (J. Sun 2016). In the sacrificial artifacts from Sanxingdui, we see divine birds perched atop the sacred trees, indicating that ancient reverence for birds and their role in facilitating communication between humans and heavenly deities dates back approximately four thousand years. Further contemplation leads to the bird motifs found in the ritual vessel decorations of the Shang and Zhou periods, which were likely early ancestral ways of communicating with the heavens and divine spirits, given the birds’ ability to freely fly in the sky, ultimately manifested in the imagery on bronze ritual vessels used for sacrificial purposes.

Regarding the paired birds on doors, the practice of depicting divine birds (such as phoenixes and vermilion birds) in Han dynasty tomb spaces, and the functional ideology they express, continued into the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Sui-Tang periods. Notably, during an era close to that of Cave 285, and under profound Buddhist influence, the stone door lintel of Empress Dowager Feng’s Yonggu Tomb in Fangshan, Northern Wei, featured images of celestial youth holding a lotus bud, with two phoenixes standing on vine columns on either side of the door frame (Figure 30) (Datong City Museum and Shanxi Provincial Cultural Relics Committee 1978). This bears a high degree of similarity to the arch-shaped niche lintels in stone caves, and Sheng-chih Lin specifically noted this as an influence of Buddhism (Lin 2019). The tomb door of Xu Xianxiu from the Northern Qi dynasty is particularly representative, where the imagery associated with Xu Xianxiu’s stone tomb door heavily utilizes auspicious birds and beasts to reflect the tomb ascension and immortality concepts, with several instances of paired divine birds and beasts arranged symmetrically. On each side of the two door panels are depicted beings with beast heads, bird bodies and hoofed feet, holding flowers in their mouths and standing atop cloud patterns. Below them, a blue dragon and a white tiger, also holding flowers in their mouths and standing on clouds, are depicted, surrounded by flowers and clouds, conveying a strong sense of a celestial realm (Figure 31). Interestingly, these images of the blue dragon and white tiger were later altered to bird forms during subsequent coloration. In the middle of the stone door lintel, a fearful beast is painted with two divine birds on either side holding flowers in their mouths (Figure 32), and the door pillars are adorned with patterns of honeysuckle, lotus, and precious jewels; while the paintings on the front wall of the arch-shaped door of the stone tomb are damaged, the fearful beasts holding auspicious grass on both sides of the arch are well preserved, and two door officials holding whips are painted on the outer wall beside the door pillars (Shanxi Provincial Archaeological Research Institute and Taiyuan City Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute 2003). Researchers have pointed out that Xu Xianxiu’s tomb chamber was “designed as a closed space centered around the theme of the tomb owner’s soul ascending to immortality” (Zhuang 2011). Indeed, from the images on Xu Xianxiu’s tomb door, rich in mystery and influenced by both Buddhist and Zoroastrian cultures—featuring divine birds, mythical beasts, winged divine creatures, lotuses, honeysuckle, and precious jewels—one can sense the strong context of guiding the tomb owner’s soul in its ascension to immortality. The dragons and tigers on either side of the door, as with traditional tomb ascension themes (Wu 2010), appear in the forefront of the spirit paths in Han tomb pictorial stones, Wei-Jin Northern Dynasty sarcophagi, and Southern and Northern Dynasties up to Sui-Tang tombs. Here, the paired divine birds positioned on the door panels and lintels clearly enhance their special significance in guiding the soul of the tomb owner.

Indeed, the depiction of paired birds on secular tomb doors, lintels, door frames, and symbolic Heavenly Gate towers has been a popular motif from the Han dynasty through the Sui-Tang period. For instance, the lintel of a large Northern Qi tomb in Cixian Wanzhang features paired birds holding flowers with a central wish-fulfilling jewel, and the door murals depict corresponding divine birds and mythical creatures, centered around a large phoenix. From top to bottom, the arrangement includes paired birds holding auspicious grass, paired flying rabbits holding auspicious grass, and paired winged divine creatures20, creating a strong atmosphere of ascension to immortality (Figure 33). Given the abundant lotus and honeysuckle motifs on the tomb’s corridor murals, particularly the lotus blossoms painted on the ground, the influence of Buddhism is unmistakably evident.

Similar ascension imagery is also evident in the mural paintings of the tomb doors at the large tomb of Jiuyuangang in Xinzhou, Northern Qi, where paired phoenix images appear on the grand and luxurious gate tower (Figure 34). This location, like the images on the tomb path and door lintels and panels, reflects the same ideas of the tomb’s ascension to immortality. Such imagery continued to be popular into the Tang dynasty. For instance, the stone tomb door of Li Shou features pairs of vermilion birds symmetrically positioned above and below on both sides of the door (Shaanxi Provincial Museum and Cultural Management Committee 1974). The stone tomb door of Princess Chang in Xincheng even displays six pairs of divine birds and mythical creatures (Figure 35) (Shaanxi Provincial Archaeological Research Institute and Shaanxi History Museum 1997), typifying the auspicious and lucky animals at the tomb door representing ascension. Numerous other Tang tombs also feature paired bird or beast images on their doors, including the stone tomb door of Li Hui with paired phoenixes on the lintel, the stone tomb door of Dong Wuzhong with paired phoenixes on the lintel and paired dragons on the architrave (Figure 36), the stone tomb door of Prince Huizhuang with paired phoenixes on the lintel (Figure 37), the stone tomb door of Li Wuji with multiple paired birds and beasts (Figure 38), and the stone tomb door of Li Xian with paired dragons on the architrave and paired phoenixes on the lintel, as well as the stone tomb door of An Pu with paired phoenixes on the lintel (Figure 39), etc., as documented by Xiaqing Yin (Yin 2006). It is also notable that during the Sui and Tang periods, these auspicious and lucky creatures always appear amidst various complex floral patterns on stone tomb doors, including cloud-shaped twining honeysuckle, twining vines, twining vine and precious flower motifs, twining vine peony motifs, and twining vine pomegranate motifs. This can be understood as a continuation of the paired birds and beasts found in the honeysuckle and lotus motifs on Northern Dynasty cave niche lintels.

Yin has analyzed and compared the patterns on various archeological artifacts from the Han, Wei-Jin Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern and Southern Dynasties, Sui, and Tang periods, and concluded that “the large bird images on the front walls of tomb doors from the Northern Dynasties through the Tang period represent the vermilion bird, while the images of birds on the sides of stone tomb architraves are of the phoenix. The frontal depiction of the vermilion bird not only symbolizes the southern direction but also connotes auspiciousness, protection, and reverence for the southern vermilion bird deity. This frontal compositional style may have been influenced by the frontal iconographic conventions of deities in Buddhism. Phoenix imagery plays a role in guiding the soul of the tomb owner. The images of monstrous heads or full bodies on Northern Dynasties through Tang dynasty tomb murals and stone tomb doors are known as “fearful beasts,” which represent a synthesis of Buddhist, Zoroastrian, and other foreign influences with traditional Chinese religious ideology and magical practices. These are painted and carved onto stone tomb architraves, tomb doors, and sarcophagi, serving to ward off evil spirits and protect the tomb. The blue dragon and white tiger are traditional Chinese motifs carved on the stone tomb pillars and doors, not only indicating the left and right directions but primarily serving as guardian deities providing protection and repelling evil”21. In reality, the images of the vermilion bird, phoenix, blue dragon, white tiger, fearful beasts, and other auspicious animals on the doors of Han-Tang tombs, given their location at the entrance and exit passages of tombs, must be fully considered in the context of beliefs about the tomb owner’s soul ascending to immortality. For instance, on the murals of Yao Jun’s tomb doors from the Northern Qi, a vermilion bird is centrally depicted, flanked by two feathered beings, with the space filled with motifs of the regenerative lotus and honeysuckle, creating a strongly celestial atmosphere. This arrangement underscores the theme of the tomb owner’s transformation into an immortal (Cixian Cultural Museum 1984).

The theme of birds symbolizing ascension to immortality continued into the Song, Liao, and Jin dynasty tombs, with a typical example found in the Liao dynasty tombs in Xuanhua, Hebei. Taking Zhang Kuangzheng’s tomb as an example, three pairs of white cranes are depicted flying upwards, set against a backdrop of cloud patterns (Figure 40). According to Wu Hung’s interpretation, such depictions of white cranes in tombs can be traced back to the Tang dynasty, specifically to the murals of celestial cranes among clouds in the tomb passageways of Prince Yide (懿德太子) (characters) and Princess Yongtai (永泰公主) (characters), influenced by Daoist beliefs in immortality22. It can also be argued that such paired bird imagery is a continuation of the traditional theme of ascension found in tombs since the Han dynasty.

This analysis allows us to broadly observe that the imagery of paired birds and beasts on tomb doors has been a consistent theme since the Han dynasty, particularly fixed at the positions of lintels and doors. This arrangement is a focused expression of the traditional belief in the tomb owner’s ascension to immortality and transformation into a celestial being, prevalent in conventional secular tombs.

5. Rebirth in the Pure Land: Symbolism of Paired Bird in Buddhist Caves

In traditional tombs, the use of bird imagery (not limited to paired birds but also including single birds like the frequently depicted vermilion bird or phoenix) has historically conveyed beliefs in ascension and immortality, influencing the Buddhist conceptions of heavenly realms and rebirth in the Pure Land among lay believers.

Besides the paired birds among honeysuckle and lotus motifs on the lintels of the eight small chambers used for storing the ashes, relics, or images of high monks in Mogao Cave 285 from the Western Wei period, a profusion of such motifs can also be observed on the cave ceilings during the Northern Dynasties at Dunhuang. These images are frequently positioned among the rafters under a chevron-arched ceiling, with lotuses painted at the central ridge of the chevron, symbolizing rebirth into the Pure Land. The rafters are adorned with various patterns of honeysuckle intertwined with lotuses and wish-fulfilling jewels, interspersed with images of paired birds, animals, celestial beings, and winged mythical creatures. In Mogao Cave 288 from the Western Wei, the part of the ceiling structured like chevron rafters is filled with patterns of honeysuckle, lotuses, and wish-fulfilling jewels. Each segment of honeysuckle may feature a bird standing on it, including pairs of birds like parrots, phoenixes, peacocks, pigeons, and pheasants. One segment even depicts a winged mythical beast, while another shows a celestial being carrying a flower bud in flight (Figure 41). By the time of the Northern Zhou, in Cave 428, the area between the chevron-arched rafters mimicking wooden beams is even richer in imagery, featuring pairs of peacocks, parrots, pigeons, and pheasants, along with a running deer and a celestial being (Figure 42). In Cave 430, the space between the rafters mimicking wooden beams features lotuses and honeysuckle, with some segments also displaying the wish-fulfilling jewels. Among these, one can find paired monkeys and a unique composition featuring an owl23 above and two pigeons below (Figure 43).

In the Northern Dynasties’ Buddhist caves at Dunhuang, specifically in the chevron-arched ceilings akin to those in Northern Wei Cave 248, the central flattened top is designed with a crossed-square pattern, encompassing a large central lotus flower. Between the beams, on one side, there is a depiction of a celestial being holding a lotus branch as an offering, while on the other side, an apsara is shown making an offering with lotus branches (Figure 44). In Western Wei Cave 435, the spaces between imitation wooden beams are painted with lotus flowers, each topped by a celestial musician (Figure 45). Similarly, in Western Wei Cave 431, the chevron-arched ceiling between the imitation beams features celestial beings holding lotus flowers as offerings (Figure 46). Whether it is celestial beings presenting lotus flowers or apsaras performing musical offerings atop lotuses, these motifs are expressions of the Pure Land concepts. This is evident in the depictions found on the stone sarcophagus lid from the Northern Wei tomb of Xing Hejiang in Datong, which features two rows of flying apsaras.

Thus, the motifs of honeysuckle, lotus, and wish-fulfilling jewels that appear on the ceilings of Buddhist cave chevron arches are representations of the Buddhist Pure Land scenery. The inclusion of paired birds, beasts, animals, celestial beings, and winged mythical creatures within these scenes links back to the imagery found on the tomb murals and doors during the Han, Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties periods. These elements are expressions of the same concepts of ascension and immortality as those depicted in tombs but adapted to the Buddhist context of rebirth in the Pure Land. This form of representation is most characteristic of examples on the tomb doors of the Northern Wei’s Yonggu Tomb in Fangshan and the Northern Qi’s Xu Xianxiu’s tomb, where these motifs explicitly convey the transcendental and salvific aspirations of Buddhist thought.

Upon detailed comparison, it is evident that the imagery and representational forms of honeysuckle, lotus, wish-fulfilling jewels, birds, beasts, and celestial beings on the lintels or chevron-arched ceilings of the Northern Dynasties’ Buddhist caves in Dunhuang share significant similarities with those found in contemporary tombs. This observation underscores not only a conceptual exchange between the two in terms of their thematic functions but also suggests an influence in the preparatory sketches and designs used in both contexts.

In terms of the Buddhist Pure Land, birds such as peacocks and parrots are native to this celestial realm, embodying the “various marvelous and multicolored birds” described within it. This notion is recorded in Kumārajīva’s translation of the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha (Amituo jing 阿彌陀經, Taisho no. 366), where it is stated:

Moreover, Śāriputra, that land is always filled with various marvelous and multicolored birds—white cranes, peacocks, parrots, śāris, kalaviṅkas, and birds of paradise. These birds sing harmonious and elegant melodies six times throughout the day and night. Their songs express the Dharma, teaching the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path. When the beings of that land hear these sounds, they are all reminded to contemplate the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha (Taishō 1924–1934).

In Xuanzang’s translation of the Sutra on Praises of the Pure Land with the Buddhas’ Protection (Chengzan jingtu fo sheshou jing 稱讃淨土佛攝受經, Taisho no. 367), we read:

Furthermore, Śāriputra, in the Pure Land of the Blissful World, there are always various marvelous and delightful multicolored birds, including geese, herons, cranes, peacocks, parrots, garuḍas, and two-headed birds, among others. These birds gather together six times a day and night, consistently producing harmonious and elegant sounds. Each species in its own way proclaims the sublime Dharma, including teachings on profound mindfulness, proper elimination [of afflictions], spiritual powers, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, and the components of the path—these innumerable wonderful teachings. When the beings of that land hear these sounds, they each receive immeasurable merits from contemplating the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, thus cultivating their spiritual virtues24.

Dharmarakṣa’s translation of the Sutra on Prince Puṇyaraśmi (Deguang taizi jing 德光太子經, Taisho no. 170) in the Western Jin says:

The Buddha said to Rāhula and others: In his ornamental gardens, there were parrots, cormorants, curlews, peacocks, geese, mandarin ducks, kuṇāla birds, heron birds, and various regional birds, all singing sorrowfully with diverse sounds, to entertain Prince Puṇyaraśmi, constantly providing offerings of five hundred flavors25.

In the first fascicle of the Lalitavistara (Puyao jing 普曜經, Taisho no. 186) translated by Dharmarakṣa, there are various auspicious birds:

Near the snowy mountains, there were ducks, geese, mandarin ducks, eagles, hawks, red-billed parrots, blue jays, mournful phoenixes, and various other birds that came to the king’s palace, residing above the palace halls, near the open windows, doors, and latticed screens, each singing clearly in soft, wonderful, and elegant tones26.

In the first fascicle of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra, translated by Bodhiruci during the Tang Dynasty:

At that time, the Buddha was residing at Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain in Rājagṛha. This mountain, high and steep, was majestic and pleasing to behold, holding a variety of species as if it were the great earth itself, with all flowers and trees in full flourish. It was also a place frequented by gods, dragons, yakṣas, piśācas, and kiṃnaras. Moreover, there were various kinds of unusual animals, including lions, tigers, wolves, qilins, elephants, horses, bears, and boars inhabiting it. Additionally, there were countless birds in the thousands, such as peacocks, parrots, quails, larks, ducks, geese, mandarin ducks, and birds with two heads, all residing there27.

Overall, it can be observed that Buddhist scriptures record a diverse array of birds that represent the life in the Pure Land, often described as “various marvelous and multicolored birds.” This includes commonly seen birds such as parrots, peacocks, mandarin ducks, blue jays, geese (including swans and cranes), cormorants, and herons. The phoenix (or mournful phoenix) holds a place as a divine bird in Chinese culture and is conceptually familiar. These birds are also depicted in the celestial imagery found on the ceilings of the Northern Dynasties caves at Dunhuang. The inclusion of raptors like hawks in Buddhist texts, portrayed as performers of exquisite music, is an exceptional case, likely specific to the unique environment of the snowy mountains mentioned in the scriptures. Additionally, other texts mention birds like śāris and kokilas, which are unique to India. Furthermore, there are purely mythical birds specific to Buddhist cosmology, such as the kalaviṅka, birds of shared life, kiṃnara, kuṇāla, heron birds, and regional birds, which are generally depicted in transformational art as having human heads and bird bodies—commonly seen as kalaviṅkas or birds of shared life (Figure 47).

The various birds recorded in Buddhist scriptures as appearing in the Pure Land are not only depicted as celestial images on the ceilings of Northern Dynasties’ caves but are also prevalently featured in the large-scale Pure Land transformation tableaux of the Tang dynasty. They are indeed crucial elements constituting the imagery of the Pure Land and can be considered as symbols of it. Taking the transformations of the Pure Land at Dunhuang during the Tang, Five Dynasties, and Song periods as examples, one can observe ducks, mandarin ducks, swans, white cranes, geese, and parrots swimming in the “Seven Merit Pools” or the “Eight Merit Waters” alongside beings reborn in lotuses (Figure 48). Additionally, long-tailed phoenixes and peacocks, which are frequently seen in Pure Land transformations (Figure 49), as well as human-headed kalaviṅka birds often holding musical instruments and parrots, appear frequently around the main Buddha figures, such as in the transformation tableaux on the Amitāyus Visualization Sūtra in Mogao Cave 55 from the Song (Figure 50), where they perform music and dance to entertain the Buddha.

Previously, in the Northern Dynasties caves, paired birds appeared alongside motifs like lotus flowers, honeysuckle, pearls, celestial beings, and winged mythical creatures on the chevron-arched ceilings, symbolizing the Pure Land. This imagery persisted into the Cao clan’s Guiyi Army era, as seen in the cave caissons. Taking Cave 61 from the Five Dynasties at Mogao as an example, the center of the ceiling features a large lotus with a dragon at its core, surrounded by four pairs of parrots dancing on each side. Around the first circle of the caisson beyond the center, there are two pairs of phoenixes holding ribbons on each of the four sides, termed “double phoenixes holding ribbons,” and four mythical beasts (either qilins 麒麟 or lions) standing opposite to each other, guarding a precious pearl (Figure 51) (Dunhuang Academy 2003b). The presence of dragons, paired birds, paired phoenixes, and paired mythical beasts vividly represents or symbolizes the celestial realm of the Buddhist heavens. Simultaneously, on the ceiling of Mogao Cave 98, the area surrounding the central lotus with a dragon is flanked by two pairs of parrots on each side (Figure 52). These parrots, appearing on the ceiling which symbolizes the Buddhist heavens, can be considered a continuation of the early cave ceiling imagery featuring paired birds amidst honeysuckle. By the Western Xia period, the main imagery seen was dual phoenixes and dragon-phoenix combinations, exemplified by the dual phoenix-headed, dragon-bodied images in Cave 400 at Mogao, representing a unique form of depiction of rebirth into the Pure Land (Sha 2022). This concept continued into the Western Xia period as seen in the auspicious birds and mythical creature motifs on the ceiling decorations of Caves 3 and 10 at Yulin (Guo 2019).

In addition, during the Sui and Tang periods at the Mogao Caves, images of various birds often appear in the vacant areas or margins beneath the Thousand Buddhas on the cave ceilings. For example, Cave 322 from the early Tang period features a layer of flowers and various birds at the lowest level of the chevron-arched ceiling depicting the Thousand Buddhas (Figure 53). In contrast, the same area in Cave 57 from the same period depicts lotus blossoms or children reborn (Figure 54). The imagery in Cave 79 from the High Tang period is particularly typical (Figure 55), demonstrating that the birds painted in these vacant spaces of the Thousand Buddhas are indeed “various marvelous and multicolored birds” of the Pure Land, continuing to reflect the Buddhist celestial realm.

6. Conclusions

Based on the discussions above, it can be considered that the eight pairs of birds painted on the lintels of the eight small chambers on the northern and southern walls of Mogao Cave 285 from the Western Wei period, alongside the honeysuckle motif symbolizing life continuity and regeneration, were clearly influenced by the imagery of paired birds and beasts found on tomb doors since the Han and Jin dynasties, symbolizing ascension and immortality. This is consistent and associated with the primary function of these chambers, which was for the burial or placement of monks’ relics and ashes. The paired birds depicted above the doors of these small chambers are intended to guide or accompany the soul of the deceased towards rebirth in the Buddhist Pure Land, serving as birds of ascension and rebirth. In a sense, they can also be seen as representing a form of life continuation or regeneration within the chambers. The imagery of birds is abundantly present in the celestial depictions on the ceilings of Northern Dynasty caves, symbolizing the Buddhist Pure Land. These images are always found in conjunction with honeysuckle, lotuses, transformations, celestial beings, and winged mythical creatures, occasionally accompanied by playful monkeys. This reflects an important form in early Buddhist art, linking birds and beasts with the Pure Land. As for the main niches in Northern Dynasty caves, where images of birds are rarely seen on the lintels and are typically dominated by motifs of honeysuckle, those reborn in lotuses, or celestial musicians, it is evident that the main deity is already situated within the Pure Land, hence there is no need for birds to guide or accompany the ascension. Therefore, the celestial musicians in these areas serve primarily to entertain the Buddha. The occasional depiction of birds and animals (such as monkeys) within these principal niches adds a diverse and rich texture to the depiction of the Pure Land. The emphasis on the correlation between the imagery of birds in the eight small chambers of Cave 285 and similar tomb imagery—from representational form to ideological content—is due to these chambers’ lintels being painted with mountains and peaks that represent their spatial context. These mountains, as pointed out by Wu Hung, are akin to the spiritually significant mountains depicted in Mogao Cave 249, representing celestial and immortal realms (Wu 2019), similar to the ring of sacred mountains encircling the lower edges of the cave ceiling. These painted peripheral mountains around the niches emphasize the celestial mountains of immortality and ascension, signifying the sacred realm of the Pure Land to which the souls are destined.

In conclusion, the eight small chambers of Cave 285 clearly reflect an association with monks’ passing and the burial of the deceased, which diverges significantly from the traditional interpretation of these spaces as serving a meditational function. Thus, defining the cave as a meditation cave is challenging to substantiate.