Search Results (1,124)

Background/Objectives: Studies have reported that female athletes often exhibit low levels of nutritional knowledge and inadequate dietary intake to meet their nutritional needs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a nutritional education intervention on nutrition knowledge, dietary intake, and body composition in female handball players (n = 45; age, 17.6 ± 2.1 years). Methods: A quasi-experimental intervention design was implemented, consisting of a 3-week educational program delivered through six in-person sessions led by a registered dietitian. Nutrition knowledge, dietary intake, adherence to the Mediterranean diet, and anthropometric and body composition measurements were assessed. Results: Nutrition knowledge levels were significantly higher both immediately post-intervention and three months later compared to baseline (p < 0.05, ES > 0.8). A total of 36 participants completed a 3-day dietary record at baseline and at follow-up. Initial assessments revealed insufficient energy (31 kcal/kg/day) and carbohydrate intake (3.0 g/kg/day) and a high intake of total fats (1.4 g/kg/day). During follow-up, a significant decrease in the consumption of foods rich in sugar was observed (p = 0.0272). A total of 82.2% of the players needed to improve their adherence to the Mediterranean diet. No significant changes were found in Mediterranean diet adherence or body composition following the intervention. Conclusions: The nutritional education intervention significantly improved athletes’ nutritional knowledge and significantly decreased their consumption of sugary foods; however, further studies are needed to evaluate its impact on dietary intake and body composition, considering the study’s limitations. Full article

The maternal–fetal environment is influenced by multiple factors, including nutrition and environmental contaminants, which can impact long-term development. Perinatal exposure to organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) disrupts energy homeostasis and causes maladaptive behaviors in mice. Maternal obesity affects development by impairing blood–brain barrier (BBB) formation, influencing brain regions involved in energy regulation and behavior. This study examined the combined effects of maternal obesity and perinatal OPFR treatment on offspring development. Female mice were fed either a low-fat (LFD) or a high-fat diet (HFD) for 8 weeks, mated, and treated with either sesame oil or an OPFR mixture (tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate, tricresyl phosphate, and triphenyl phosphate, 1 mg/kg each) from gestational day 7 to postnatal day 14. Results showed that both maternal diet and OPFR treatment disrupted blood–brain barrier integrity, energy balance, and reproductive gene expression in the hypothalamus of neonates. The expression of hepatic genes related to lipid and xenobiotic metabolism was also altered. In adulthood, LFD OPFR-treated female offspring exhibited increased avoidance behavior, while HFD OPFR-treated females demonstrated memory impairments. Metabolic assessments revealed decreased energy expenditure and nighttime activity in LFD OPFR-treated females. These findings suggest that maternal diet and OPFR treatment alter hypothalamic and liver gene expression in neonates, potentially leading to long-term metabolic and behavioral changes. Full article

Background: There is little information about the effectiveness of oral nutritional supplements (ONS) in combatting nutrient inadequacies in primary care, where most malnutrition exists. Aim: To examine the extent to which readymade ONS add or displace the nutrients consumed in the diet and their impact on combatting dietary inadequacies. Methods: 308 free-living people >50 years with medium + high risk of malnutrition (Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool) were randomised to receive readymade low volume (2.4 kcal/mL), liquid ONS plus dietary advice (ONS + DA) or dietary advice alone (DA). Intake was assessed at baseline (24 h recall) and 4-weekly for 12 weeks (3-day diet record). Total nutrient intake was benchmarked against UK and European dietary reference values (DRVs). The proportion of energy and nutrients from the ONS that added or displaced those from the diet (net addition/displacement) was calculated. Results: ONS + DA led to significantly greater total energy and nutritional intakes, with 25/29 nutrient intakes significantly higher than with DA alone. There were no significant differences in dietary energy and nutrient intakes from food between the groups. There was little or no displacement of nutrients from the diet, with over 90% of the energy and nutrients consumed in the ONS additive to the diet. ONS + DA more than halved the number of people with nutrient intakes that failed to meet DRVs and the number of nutrients per person that did not meet DRVs compared to DA alone. Conclusions: Supplementation with readymade, low volume (2.4 kcal/mL) liquid ONS overcomes most nutrient intake inadequacies in malnourished older people in primary care without significantly reducing intake from the diet. This makes ONS an effective way to improve nutritional intakes above dietary advice alone to improve the outcomes for the management of older people at risk of malnutrition. Full article

Background: Western dietary patterns worldwide are increasingly dominated by energy-dense, nutrient-deficient industrial foods, often identified as ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Such products may have detrimental health implications, particularly if nutritionally inadequate. This study aimed to examine the intake of unhealthy UPFs among children and adolescents from five Mediterranean countries (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Egypt, and Lebanon) involved in the DELICIOUS project and to assess the association with dietary quality indicators. Methods: A survey was conducted with a sample of 2011 parents of children and adolescents aged 6 to 17 years to evaluate their dietary habits. Diet quality was assessed using the Youth Healthy Eating Index (Y-HEI), the KIDMED index to determine adherence to the Mediterranean diet, and compliance with national dietary guidelines. Results: Increased UPF consumption was not inherently associated with healthy or unhealthy specific food groups, although children and adolescents who consumed UPF daily were less likely to exhibit high overall diet quality and adherence to the Mediterranean diet. In all five countries, greater UPF intake was associated with poorer compliance with dietary recommendations concerning fats, sweets, meat, and legumes. Conclusions: Increased UPF consumption among Mediterranean children and adolescents is associated with an unhealthy dietary pattern, possibly marked by a high intake of fats, sweets, and meat, and a low consumption of legumes. Full article

The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effects of tartary buckwheat flavonoids (TBF) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (25-OHD) on fatty liver syndrome (FLS) in laying hens. A total of 450 35-wk-old Lohmann laying hens were selected and randomly divided into five groups, with six replicates per treatment and 15 laying hens in each replicate. The control group was fed a corn-soybean meal basal diet. The FLS group was fed a high- energy–low-protein (HELP) diet, and the other three experimental groups were fed HELP diets supplemented with 60 mg/kg TBF, 69 μg/kg 25-OHD, and 60 mg/kg TBF plus 69 μg/kg 25-OHD, respectively. The experiment lasted 8 weeks. The results demonstrated that feeding laying hens with a HELP diet led to a significant accumulation of fat in their livers, liver enlargement and yellowing, as well as a decline in liver antioxidant capacity and an aggravation of inflammation. TBF alone, 25-OHD alone, and their combination had no effect on the laying performance of laying hens fed with a HELP diet. However, 25-OHD significantly enhanced the albumin content, eggshell strength, and eggshell thickness of eggs (p < 0.05). Compared with the HELP group, TBF, 25-OHD, or their combination reduced serum LDL-C and TG (p < 0.05). The combined treatment further lowered serum NEFA and MDA, enhanced liver SOD activity (p < 0.05), and unlike TBF alone (which reduced hepatic TG) or 25-OHD alone (which decreased liver index), reduced both liver index and hepatic TG (p < 0.05). Liver gene expression analysis showed that combined TBF and 25-OHD significantly inhibited the expression of fat synthesis-related genes (ACC, FAS, GPAT1, ChREBP1, LXRα, SREBP-1C, SREBP-2, FABP) as well as inflammation-related genes (IL-6, TNF-α, NF-κB, TLR4) (p < 0.05). At the phylum level of the cecal microbiota, TBF increased the abundance of Bacteroidota (p < 0.05), and combined TBF and 25-OHD tended to increase the abundance of Firmicutes_D. At the genus level, TBF increased the abundance of Phocaeicola_A (p < 0.05). Furthermore, TBF, 25-OHD, or their combination reduced the abundance of Faecalibacterium (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that combined TBF and 25-OHD mitigates FLS in laying hens potentially through remodeling gut microbiota and maintaining lipid metabolic homeostasis. Full article

Background: Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the most common chronic liver condition globally, strongly linked to obesity, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Tirzepatide (TZP), a dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist, improves glycemic control and reduces body weight and the liver fat content in patients with obesity and T2D. However, its effect on liver-specific outcomes such as steatosis and fibrosis remains incompletely characterized. Low-energy ketogenic therapy (LEKT), a nutritional strategy characterized by carbohydrate restriction and nutritional ketosis, may enhance hepatic β-oxidation and reduce hepatic lipogenesis. To date, however, the combination of TZP and LEKT has not been studied in patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). This study aimed to compare the hepatic and metabolic effects of TZP combined with either LEKT or a conventional low-calorie diet (LCD) over a 12-week period. Methods: Sixty adult patients with MASLD undergoing TZP therapy were prospectively assigned to either an LEKT or a conventional LCD, with 30 participants per group. As primary endpoints, the controlled attenuation parameter (CAP, an index of hepatic steatosis) and liver stiffness measurement (LSM, an index of liver fibrosis) were assessed at the baseline and after 12 weeks using FibroScan^®. Secondary outcomes included changes in body mass index (BMI), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and liver enzymes. Adherence to both diet and pharmacological treatment, as well as tolerability, were systematically monitored throughout the intervention period. Results: Both groups showed significant reductions in body weight (TZP + LEKT, p = 0.0289; TZP + LCD, p = 0.0278), with no significant intergroup difference (p = 0.665). CAP and LSM improved significantly in both groups, but reductions were greater in the TZP + LEKT group (CAP −12.5%, p < 0.001; LSM −22.7%, p < 0.001) versus LCD (CAP −6.7%, p = 0.014; LSM −9.2%, p = 0.022). Between-group differences were statistically significant for both CAP (p = 0.01) and LSM (p = 0.03). Conclusions: Based on these preliminary findings, we support the hypothesis that the combination of TZP and LEKT may be superior to TZP with an LCD in reducing hepatic steatosis and stiffness in individuals with obesity. Full article

The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in maintaining the host’s metabolism and can influence the host’s productivity. Both dietary composition and gender have distinct effects on the composition of the gut microbiota. Therefore, to investigate the differences in the structure and function of the gut microbiota between female and male goats, we analyzed their fecal microbiota and metabolites when fed a 10% crude protein diet at four different energy levels—7.01, 8.33, 9.66, and 10.98 MJ/kg DM. Four non-pregnant female and four male Leizhou goats (all 8 months of age) were used in the experiment, with an average body weight of 10.3 ± 0.8 kg for females and 13.6 ± 1.1 kg for males (mean ± SD). The animals were assigned to two separate 4 × 4 Latin square designs according to their gender, each consisting of four treatments and four 28-day periods, including 25 days of a dietary adaptation period and 3 days of fecal sample collection per period. The data were analyzed using the SAS statistical package and Pearson’s correlation analysis. The dominant phyla for all samples were Firmicutes and Bacteroidota, regardless of dietary energy levels or gender. Among fecal bacteria, unclassified_f_Lachnospiraceae was the dominant genus in the female goats, and Oscillospiraceae_UCG-005 was the dominant genus in the male goats. The relative abundance of unclassified_f_Lachnospiraceae (p < 0.001), Bacteroides (p = 0.007), norank_f_Ruminococcaceae (p = 0.024), Mediterraneibacter (p = 0.001), and norank_f_Muribaculaceae (p = 0.008) was greater in the female goats than in the male goats. In contrast, the relative abundance of Oscillospiraceae_UCG-005 (p < 0.001), Ruminococcus (p = 0.035), Monoglobus (p = 0.006), Oscillospiraceae-NK4A214_group (p = 0.008), norank_f_F082 (p < 0.001), and Prevotellaceae_UCG-003 (p < 0.001) was lower in the female goats than in the male goats. The volcano plot showed that there were 153, 171, 171, and 183 differential metabolites between the female and male goats at dietary energy levels of 7.01, 8.33, 9.66, and 10.98 MJ/kg DM, respectively. Numerous correlations were observed between differential metabolites and microflora genera. We concluded that the non-pregnant female and male goats exhibited distinct metabolic abilities when consuming a 10% crude protein diet at four different energy levels. Interestingly, in the female and male goats, the fecal microbiota also showed some differing responses to the energy levels. These results provide a gender-based reference for formulating low-protein dietary strategies for 8-month-old Leizhou goats. Full article

Background/Objectives: Colorectal cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, with rising incidence in younger adults. Unhealthy diets high in red and processed meat and low in fiber are key modifiable risk factors, highlighting the need for preventive nutritional strategies targeting CRC through dietary interventions. Methods: A one-day sample diet for colorectal cancer prevention, consisting of fiber-rich meals excluding red meat and incorporating whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and lean protein alternatives (such as fish and poultry), was developed. Its acceptability was assessed in a cross-sectional study using an online questionnaire among healthy Romanian adults aged 18–50, with a total of 395 included participants. Results: Of the 395 respondents meeting the inclusion criteria (aged 18–50, no cancer or chronic gastrointestinal disorders), 63.5% were females, predominantly urban (90.1%), and highly educated. Mean age was 32.4 years; mean BMI was 25.07 kg/m². The proposed colorectal cancer-preventive diet was rated as “quite attractive” and “very attractive” by 74.9% of participants. All meals received high ratings, with dinner and the first snack being most favored. Most respondents (77.2%) found the diet satisfying and the satiety level and energy adequate, and 90.4% were willing to adopt it at least a few times per week. Financial accessibility was affirmed by 77.2% of the respondents. However, 61.8% reported difficulty eliminating red meat consumption. Female participants rated the diet significantly more attractive than males did (p = 0.041). Willingness to adopt the diet strongly correlated with higher acceptability (p < 0.0001), while BMI and education level showed no significant effect. Conclusions: The proposed colorectal cancer-preventive diet was well accepted by Romanian adults aged 18–50, with higher receptivity among women and those with higher education; willingness to adopt the diet at least a few days per week was high, especially among those psychologically ready for dietary change, while key barriers included red meat reduction and perceived cost, underscoring the need for gender-sensitive, culturally adapted interventions and further research on long-term adherence and clinical impact. Full article

Background: Heart failure (HF) is frequently associated with skeletal muscle wasting, reduced functional capacity, and malnutrition. High-protein diets offer a promising nutritional intervention to improve these outcomes in individuals with HF. Objective: This systematic review evaluated randomized controlled trials of high-protein dietary interventions in HF populations, with emphasis on intervention characteristics, quantitative benefits, and risk of bias. Methods: We conducted a comprehensive search in PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane CENTRAL from inception to June 2025. Eligible studies enrolled adults (≥18 years) with HF, implemented high-protein regimens (≥1.1 g/kg/day or ~25–30% of energy), and reported on functional capacity, body composition, muscle strength, clinical outcomes, or biochemical markers. Two reviewers independently screened, extracted data, and assessed bias (Cochrane RoB 2). Heterogeneity in dosing, duration, and outcomes precluded meta-analysis; we therefore provide a narrative synthesis. Results: Ten trials (nine randomized controlled trials, one pilot) involving 1080 patients (median n = 38; range 21–652) were included. High-protein interventions yielded mean improvements in six-minute walk distance of +32 ± 14 m, lean body mass gain of +1.6 ± 0.9 kg, and 9 ± 4% enhancement in quality-of-life scores; muscle strength effects varied from −2% to +11%. Two studies reported an 18% reduction in HF readmissions (p < 0.05). The risk-of-bias assessment identified two low-risk, three moderate-risk, and one high-risk study. Key limitations include small sample sizes, varied protein dosing (1.1–1.5 g/kg/day), short follow-up (2–6 months), and outcome heterogeneity. Conclusions: High-protein dietary strategies appear to confer modest, clinically relevant gains in functional capacity, nutritional status, and HF readmission risk. Larger, well-powered trials with standardized dosing and longer follow-up are necessary to establish optimal protein targets, long-term efficacy, and safety. Full article

Background: The gut microbiota is increasingly recognized as a key modulator in obesity management, influencing host energy balance, lipid metabolism, and inflammatory pathways. With obesity prevalence continuing to rise globally, dietary interventions that promote beneficial microbial shifts are essential for enhancing weight loss outcomes and long-term health. Objective: This study investigated the effects of the multicomponent Weight Loss Maintenance 3 Phases Program (WLM3P), which integrates caloric restriction, a high-protein low-carbohydrate diet, time-restricted eating (10h TRE), dietary supplementation (prebiotics and phytochemicals), and digital app-based support on gut microbiota composition compared to a standard low-carbohydrate diet (LCD) in adults with obesity. The analysis focused exclusively on the 6-month weight loss period corresponding to Phases 1 and 2 of the WLM3P intervention. Methods: In this sub-analysis of a randomized controlled trial (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04192357), 58 adults with obesity (BMI 30.0–39.9 kg/m²) were randomized to the WLM3P (n = 29) or LCD (n = 29) groups. Stool samples were collected at baseline and 6 months for 16S rRNA sequencing. Alpha and beta diversity were assessed, and genus-level differential abundance was determined using EdgeR and LEfSe. Associations between microbial taxa and clinical outcomes were evaluated using regression models. Results: After 6-month, the WLM3P group showed a significant increase in alpha diversity (p = 0.03) and a significant change in beta diversity (p < 0.01), while no significant changes were observed in the LCD group. Differential abundance analysis revealed specific microbial signatures in WLM3P participants, including increased levels of Faecalibacterium. Notably, higher Faecalibacterium abundance was associated with greater reductions in fat mass (kg, %) and visceral adiposity (cm²) in the WLM3P group compared to LCD (p < 0.01). Conclusions: These findings suggest a potential microbiota-mediated mechanism in weight loss, where Faecalibacterium may enhance fat reduction effectiveness in the context of the WLM3P intervention. Full article

Background: Female collegiate runners may be at high risk for disordered eating and poor bone health, which are characteristics of the female athlete triad. Intuitive eating can promote healthy eating behavior and adequate calorie intake, central variables in calculating energy availability, an underlying cause of low bone mass in athletes. Poor bone health can contribute to injury, preventing optimal performance for athletes. The purpose of this study was to assess intuitive eating, energy availability, and bone mineral density in female college runners with comparison to non-athletes. Methods: Female college athletes (n = 13, 19.5 ± 1.4 yrs) and non-athletes (n = 12, 19.9 ± 1.3 yrs) completed the Intuitive Eating Scale, Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire, and menstrual history survey. Bone mineral density and body composition were measured using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometer (DEXA). A 3-day diet record and exercise log were used to assess dietary intake, estimate energy expenditure, and calculate energy availability. Results: Intuitive eating was inversely correlated with disordered eating (r = −0.596, p = 0.002). Intuitive eating scores were not correlated to calorie intake, energy availability, bone mass, or percent body fat. Runners consumed significantly more calories, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and protein (g/kg) than non-athletes. Energy availability and bone mineral density were not significantly different between runners and non-athletes. Conclusions: Intuitive eating is associated with healthy eating behaviors in college-age females and was not related to energy availability, bone density, or body composition in this population. Future research could explore the use of intuitive eating principles in reducing disordered eating and addressing low energy availability in female runners and non-athletes. Full article

IMF (intramuscular fat, IMF), as a key index for evaluating meat quality traits (shear force and cooking loss, etc.), and its deposition process are jointly regulated by nutritional and genetic factors. In this study, we analyzed the molecular regulation mechanism of IMF deposition in the LD (longissimus dorsal muscle, LD) by dietary energy level in Pamir yaks. Meat quality assessment showed that the meat quality of the High-energy diet group (1.53 MJ/Kg, G) and the Medium-energy diet group (1.38 MJ/Kg, Z) were significantly improved compared with that of the Low-energy diet group (0.75 MJ/Kg, C), in which IMF content in the LD of yaks in G group was significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared with Z and C groups. Further analysis by combined transcriptomics and lipid metabolomics revealed that the differences in IMF deposition mainly originated from the metabolism of lipids, such as TG (triglycerides, TG), PS (phosphatidylserine, PS), and LPC (lysophosphatidylcholine, LPC), and were influenced by SFRP4, FABP4, GADD45A, PDGFRA, RBP4, and DGAT2 genes, further confirming the importance of lipid–gene interactions in IMF deposition. This study reveals the energy-dependent epigenetic regulatory mechanism of IMF deposition in plateau ruminants, which provides molecular targets for optimizing yak nutritional strategies and quality meat production, while having important theoretical and practical value for the sustainable development of livestock husbandry on the Tibetan Plateau. Full article

This study aimed to investigate the effects of adding 360 mg/kg niacinamide (NAM) to diets on nutrient metabolism, providing insights into how dietary NAM supplementation enhances nitrogen utilization and growth performance in pigs. Forty growing–finishing pigs were randomly assigned to one of four experimental diets as follows: basal diet + 30 mg/kg NAM (CON), basal diet + 360 mg/kg NAM (CON + NAM), low-protein diet + 30 mg/kg NAM (LP), and low-protein diet + 360 mg/kg NAM (LP + NAM). Results showed that supplementation of both the CON and LP diets with 360 mg/kg NAM resulted in decreased urea nitrogen concentrations and carbamyl phosphate synthetase-I activity (p < 0.05). The pyruvate dehydrogenase activity in the serum and liver, as well as the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, and glutamate dehydrogenase 1 in the ileum mucosa, was increased by supplementing the LP diet with 360 mg/kg NAM (p < 0.05). The LP diet with 360 mg/kg NAM increased the villi length to crypt depth, mRNA expression of glucose transporters 1 and 2 and alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 1, and mRNA expression of mechanistic target of the rapamycin 1 in the ileum (p < 0.05). Additionally, 360 mg/kg NAM supplementation in the LP diet reduced ileal Lactobacillus abundance (LDA > 4) and increased ileal microbial nucleotide and purine metabolism (p < 0.05). Our findings suggest that addition of 360 mg/kg NAM to the LP diet reduced urea production in the liver, enhanced glucose and amino acid absorption and transport in the ileum, and improved glucose metabolism. Full article

The gut microbiota, dominated by bacteria from the Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria phyla, plays an essential role in fermenting indigestible carbohydrates, regulating metabolism, synthesizing vitamins, and maintaining immune functions and intestinal barrier integrity. Dysbiosis is associated with obesity development. Shifts in the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, particularly an increase in Firmicutes, may promote enhanced energy storage, appetite dysregulation, and increased inflammatory processes linked to insulin resistance and other metabolic disorders. The purpose of this literature review is to summarize the current state of knowledge on the relationship between the development and treatment of obesity and overweight and the gut microbiota. Current evidence suggests that probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) can influence gut microbiota composition and metabolic parameters, including body weight and BMI. The most promising effects are observed with probiotic supplementation, particularly when combined with prebiotics, although efficacy depends on strain type, dose, and duration. Despite encouraging preclinical findings, FMT has shown limited and inconsistent results in human studies. Diet and physical activity are key modulators of the gut microbiota. Fiber, plant proteins, and omega-3 fatty acids support beneficial bacteria, while diets low in fiber and high in saturated fats promote dysbiosis. Aerobic exercise increases microbial diversity and supports growth of favorable bacterial strains. While microbiota changes do not always lead to immediate weight loss, modulating gut microbiota represents an important aspect of obesity prevention and treatment strategies. Further research is necessary to better understand the mechanisms and therapeutic potential of these interventions. Full article

Background/Objectives: Higher energy density (ED; kJ/g) and higher levels of processing of foods and beverages have been associated with childhood obesity and reduced diet quality. This study described and examined the distribution of ED and levels of processing of new food and beverage products intended for Australian children (0–4 years, 5–12 years). Methods: This study used 2013–2023 data from the Mintel Global New Products Database. Products were classified by ED (low ≦ 4.184 kJ/g, medium > 4.184 kJ/g and <12.552 kJ/g, or high ≧ 12.552 kJ/g) and level of processing (using the NOVA classification system; unprocessed/minimally processed foods; processed culinary ingredients; processed foods; ultra-processed foods (UPFs)). Non-parametric statistics were used to examine ED and level of processing by age and ‘Food’ and ‘Drink’ groups. Results: Of the 1770 products analysed, 56% were classified as high-ED and 81% as UPF. Among ‘Food’ products intended for children ‘5–12 years’, 93% were classified as UPFs. The differences in ED classification between non-UPFs and UPFs were significant for ‘Food’ products intended for children aged ‘0–4 years’ (p < 0.001) but not for children aged ‘5–12 years’ (p = 0.149). Conclusions: The prevalence of high-ED and UPFs in the Australian packaged food supply demonstrates the need to tighten regulations around products intended for children. The regulation of low-ED UPFs (i.e., recognised by Australian Dietary Guidelines as ‘healthy’) may also be required. Full article