Search Results (479)

Background/Objectives: Regular participation in physical activity is essential for maintaining health and well-being and plays a key role in disease prevention and quality of life, both in the general population and among people with disabilities, who represent approximately 16% of the global population. Martial arts-based physical activity programs incorporating safe-falling techniques may contribute to improving physical fitness, reducing fall-related injuries, and supporting adherence to the World Health Organization physical activity recommendations. This systematic review primarily aimed to identify martial arts-based fall-training programs, particularly judo-based interventions, and examine their effects on health and well-being in individuals with intellectual disability. As a secondary objective, evidence from other populations and martial arts disciplines was considered to identify relevant fall-training protocols and transferability. Methods: The research question was formulated using the PEO framework. Eligibility criteria included: people with intellectual and developmental disabilities or special educational needs; exposure to exercise programs involving martial arts, combat sports, or judo; and outcomes related to safe falling, falls, balance, motor skills, and physical condition. A systematic literature search was conducted between December 2025 and April 2026 on the Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Results: From a total of 658 records identified, 27 studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing 1892 participants with various disabilities, including intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, visual impairment, and deafness. The interventions involved different martial arts modalities, such as judo, taekwondo, karate, tai chi, and capoeira. Overall, the available evidence suggests beneficial effects on physical fitness, motor abilities, balance, psychosocial outcomes, and safe-falling skills across different populations; however, substantial clinical and methodological heterogeneity was observed among the included studies. Conclusions: No studies investigating structured martial arts-based fall-training programs in individuals with intellectual disability were identified. Although evidence from other populations is promising, it remains heterogeneous. Further high-quality studies are needed to evaluate these interventions in individuals with intellectual disabilities. Full article

This study assessed the effectiveness of a position-specific and time-efficient warm-up injury prevention program for male football players. This season-long quasi-experimental study included 129 male amateur football players. A structured injury prevention program was incorporated into the warm-up routine during the preseason and competitive season. Prospectively collected injury data from the intervention season were compared with retrospectively collected injury data from the previous season and included injury incidence, the number of injured players, injury severity, and injury burden. The program included general exercises and position-specific modifications for defenders, midfielders, and attackers. Implementation of the program was associated with a 60% reduction in total injuries (p < 0.05) and a 60.3% reduction in total injured players The injury burden was significantly reduced (p < 0.05), as indicated by a reduced mean day lost per injury from 33.24 to 19.56 days. Although injury reductions were observed across all playing positions, between-position differences were not statistically significant. The type of injuries and their mechanisms were not significantly affected. These preliminary, associative findings suggest that a time-efficient, position-specific warm-up program may contribute to reduced injury occurrence in amateur football; however, given the quasi-experimental design, confirmation through randomized controlled trials is required. Full article

The present study was designed to evaluate the structural and biochemical efficacy of Omega-3 fatty acids in preventing renal injury in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic kidney injury and to correlate systemic oxidative stress parameters with histological and ultrastructural parameters. Twenty-eight male Wistar Albino rats were randomly divided into four groups (n = 7) as follows: Control, Omega-3 (500 mg/kg, orally), Diabetes Mellitus (DM; 50 mg/kg STZ, i.p.), and DM+Omega-3 (STZ, followed by 500 mg/kg Omega-3 for 42 days). Biochemical analysis of renal function (blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine) and oxidative status (malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS) and oxidative stress index (OSI)) was measured by ELISA. Histopathological scoring and Caspase-3 staining were performed by Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemically, respectively. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) was used to examine the renal tissues. Our results showed that the DM group presented with severe hyperglycemia, uremia, and a significant oxidative shift, as evidenced by increased MDA/TOS levels and depleted antioxidant defenses. Light microscopy showed extensive glomerular damage, tubular degeneration and inflammatory infiltration in the kidneys of diabetic rats. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed strong Caspase-3 expression in the tubular and glomerular compartments. TEM showed severe podocyte effacement and damage to the glomerular basement membrane (GBM). Notably, Omega-3 supplementation significantly reversed renal dysfunction, restored the pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance and reduced histopathological injury scores. Moreover, Omega-3 treatment efficiently blocked Caspase-3-mediated apoptotic signaling and preserved the ultrastructural integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier (GFB) and tubular mitochondria. Our results demonstrate the potent nephroprotective effects of Omega-3 fatty acids in reducing oxidative stress, preventing programmed cell death and maintaining the stability of the renal parenchyma’s microarchitecture. These findings suggest that Omega-3 fatty acids could be an effective adjuvant therapeutic agent for the management of diabetic nephropathy. Full article

Introduction: Approximately 50% of firefighter injuries occur in the musculoskeletal system and poor movement quality increases injury risk. Previous research suggests that corrective exercise interventions with integrated movements improve movement literacy; however, the long-term benefit of corrective exercise programming has not been established among firefighters. Purpose: To investigate, as a continuation of a previously published short-term (mean—267 days) outcome pilot study, the long-term effectiveness of auto-generated corrective exercise programming on movement literacy scores among firefighters with lower baseline scores. Methods: Nine male firefighters (mean age +/− standard deviation 40 (12)) with baseline Functional Movement System (FMS™) scores less than 14/21 were initially recruited from October 2021 to September 2022. Baseline FMS™ assessments included detailed explanations of the seven movement screens as well as five clearing procedures and scoring criteria. A certified FMS™ professional performed each test first, prior to scoring, to demonstrate what was expected and firefighters were permitted to attempt each test for a total of three times with the highest score retained. Scores ranged from 0 to 3 for each of the seven movement screens with a maximum composite score of 21. Upon completing the screenings, test scores were reviewed and a detailed report was provided to each firefighter through the FMS™PRO APP. Additionally, each participant received an auto-generated corrective exercise program from the FMS™PRO APP with exercise figures, descriptions, and videos to be performed prior to routine conditioning programs. Participants were re-evaluated an average of 813 days after baseline for the long-term follow-up (F2). Pairwise comparisons from baseline to F2, as well as from a previously reported short-term follow-up (F1) to F2, were evaluated using the Friedman and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. A Bonferroni correction resulted in an adjusted alpha of p = 0.025. Results: Composite FMS™ scores improved from a baseline mean of 11.3/21 to 14.7/21 at F2. When F2 was compared to the F1 scores from the previously published data set, scores declined by a mean of 1.4 points. Compared with baseline, scores at F2 were significantly improved (p = 0.013) with a large effect size (r = 0.83). In contrast, score declines (r = −0.73) from F1 to F2 were not statistically significant after Bonferroni correction (p = 0.028). Conclusions: An auto-generated corrective exercise program combined with a detailed explanation of baseline performance was effective in improving overall movement literacy in a standardized movement assessment tool in a long-term follow-up exceeding 2 years. The composite score change exceeded the threshold of error based on a previously established minimal detectable change (MDC) of 2.5/21, indicating true change occurred from baseline to F2. The decline from F1 to F2 did not exceed the threshold of error based on the MDC and may represent a regression to the mean and participant acknowledgement of marginal adherence after F1. Long-term adherence to programming is necessary to prevent the tapering of improvements seen in this study. The absence of a comparison or control group is a study limitation. Full article

Background/Objectives: The aims of this study were to investigate maxillofacial trauma resulting from electric scooter accidents and to identify risk factors associated with the location of injuries. Methods: An 8-year retrospective cohort study was conducted involving all patients presenting with electric scooter-related maxillofacial fractures at a tertiary care center from 2017 to 2024. Data recorded for each patient included gender, age, date and cause of injury, contributing factors, type of facial fractures, other injuries, helmet use, and length of hospital stay. Results: Maxillofacial fractures were diagnosed in 138 patients (18.5% of e-scooter accident presentations). The study included 93 male and 45 female patients (ratio 2:1), with a mean age of 25.8 ± 7.75 years (range 14–45 years). Patients aged 20–29 years formed the largest group (51%). Most patients (89%) sustained a single facial fracture, and the most affected facial area was the lower third, with 80 cases (58%), followed by the middle third (36%). The remaining patients were represented by a combination of the various facial thirds, with thirds I-II being the most representative (12%). The most recurrent patterns were multifocal mandibular fractures (55%), followed by fractures of the orbito-malar-zygomatic complex (33%). Dental injuries were also frequent and were recorded in 40 patients (29% of all cases). Concomitant injuries outside the facial region were documented in 32 patients (23%), among which orthopedic limb injuries were most common (44% of patients with concomitant injuries). Contributing factors were identifiable in 102 patients (74%). Self-reported helmet use was low, with 63% of patients reporting never wearing a helmet, and 27% reporting inconsistent or occasional use. Conclusions: Accidents involving personal mobility vehicles have become a primary cause of emergency room admissions in recent years. Although electric-scooter-related maxillofacial fractures are a new phenomenon, an awareness of their frequency, contributing factors, and anatomical distribution is important for emergency and trauma teams who assess these patients first. Early recognition and timely management are crucial because missed diagnoses or delayed treatment can lead to permanent facial deformities and functional disability. These findings can inform targeted public health strategies and injury-prevention programs. In the future, helmet designs should be modified to improve maxillofacial protection in scooter-related injuries. Full article

Background/Objectives: Despite the growing popularity of specialised training interventions aimed at developing motor abilities relevant to combat sports, scientific evidence regarding their effectiveness in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) remains limited. This study aimed to estimate the effects of the experimental Grappler Quest (GQ) training program on the motor fitness profile of BJJ athletes and to explore whether training experience was associated with the magnitude of training-related changes. Methods: In this randomised trial, 44 competitive male BJJ athletes were allocated to an experimental group (EXP; n = 22) or a control group (CON; n = 22). Both groups followed an 8-week training protocol: the EXP group performed the structured GQ program, consisting of small circuit-based workouts, including resistance, plyometric, gymnastic, and BJJ-related exercises, whereas the CON group followed a standard BJJ training cycle. The motor profile was assessed before and after the intervention (pretest vs. posttest) using selected motor tests. The prespecified primary outcomes were strength-endurance performance in the bench press and squat performed with 50% body mass. Other motor-performance outcomes were treated as secondary or exploratory. Associations between training experience and intervention-related changes were analysed exploratorily. Results: ANCOVA of adjusted post-intervention means indicated between-group differences favouring the EXP group. Large effects were observed for the primary strength-endurance outcomes: bench press at 50% body mass (η² = 0.52) and squat at 50% body mass (η² = 0.40). Large effects were also observed for selected secondary outcomes, including pull-ups with a judogi (η² = 0.39), trunk flexibility (η² = 0.49), and maximal straddle sitting position (η² = 0.37) (all p < 0.001). After Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate adjustment, most between-group differences remained statistically significant, although secondary outcomes should be interpreted cautiously. In EXP, improvements were observed across multiple outcomes, including 1RM bench press (mean gain $\tilde{\mathrm{x}}$ = 5.23 kg), 1RM squat ($\tilde{\mathrm{x}}$ = 4.27 kg), pull-ups ($\tilde{\mathrm{x}}$ = 1.91 reps), judo-gi hangs (bent arms $\tilde{\mathrm{x}}$ = 3.91 s; straight arms $\tilde{\mathrm{x}}$ = 4.90 s), and flamingo balance ($\tilde{\mathrm{x}}$ = 4.59 s) (all p < 0.001). In the EXP group, exploratory correlations suggested that shorter training experience was generally associated with greater conditioning-related improvements, whereas flexibility and balance showed the opposite pattern. Conclusions: The GQ intervention package was associated with greater improvements in the motor fitness profile than standard BJJ training. The findings support the potential usefulness of structured circuit-based conditioning as an adjunct to standard BJJ practice, particularly for strength-endurance development. However, the study does not allow the isolated effect of the specific GQ exercise content to be separated from the effect of adding a structured conditioning block, and no direct conclusions can be drawn regarding injury prevention or return-to-play outcomes. Full article

Corneal transparency depends on quiescence of stromal cells derived from neural crest cells and a well-controlled extracellular matrix. Disruption of this homeostasis causes fibrotic scarring, a leading cause of blindness. Transforming growth factor-β/Smad3 signaling drives corneal fibrogenesis, but the distinct roles of Smad2 versus Smad3 remain unclear. Smad2 ablation in neural crest cells using Wnt1-Cre mice triggers spontaneous severe corneal opacification along with massive stromal hypercellularity and fibrosis. The fibrotic phenotype occurs in the absence of injury, indicating that Smad2 is essential for balancing Smad3 activity in driving fibrotic signaling. Single-cell RNA sequencing and virtual knockout of Smad2 reveal prominent activation of Smad3-Yes-associated protein (YAP)/TEAD2-transcriptional program in Smad2-null corneas. Biochemical assays confirm that Smad2 loss results in increased Smad3 phosphorylation and formation of nuclear Smad3–YAP–TEAD2 complex. This trimeric complex induces the expression of collagen I, connective tissue growth factor, and cyclin D1. Importantly, pharmacologic inhibition of YAP/TEAD interaction with verteporfin blocks stromal hyperplasia and corneal fibrosis by suppressing the expression of fibrotic and cell cycle genes, which lead to restoration of corneal transparency in Smad2-neural crest-deficient mice. Our findings reveal a unique convergence of YAP/TEAD and TGF-β/Smad3 signaling that can be targeted with verteporfin to prevent corneal scarring and blindness. Full article

Radiotherapy-associated pain is among the most common and debilitating complications in head and neck cancer. Although historically viewed primarily as a treatment-related adverse effect, growing evidence suggests that pain is deeply intertwined with tumor biology, immune remodeling, and therapeutic outcomes. At the same time, recent advances in cancer neuroscience have identified sensory nerves as active components of the tumor microenvironment (TME), capable of influencing antitumor immunity through complex neuroimmune crosstalk. These observations raise the possibility that radiotherapy-associated pain is not merely a clinical symptom but also a biological indicator of dynamic changes within the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). In this review, we outline the major clinical manifestations of radiotherapy-associated pain in head and neck cancer, including inflammatory or mucositis-related pain, neuropathic pain, and long-term chronic pain, with emphasis on their underlying biological features and potential therapeutic relevance. Given that oral mucositis is the dominant source of acute radiotherapy-associated pain in head and neck cancer, we further summarize evidence-based preventive and supportive strategies, including photobiomodulation, mucosal barrier-forming agents, anti-inflammatory mouthwashes, nutritional interventions, pain control, and multidisciplinary oral care. We further discuss how radiotherapy reshapes the TIME through mechanisms such as immunogenic cell death, activation of the cGAS-STING pathway, vascular and stromal remodeling, and regulation of lymphoid compartments, while also triggering compensatory immunosuppressive responses. Preclinical and translational studies suggest that nociceptive signaling pathways may modulate T-cell function, myeloid-cell activity, and immune-evasive programs. Through these neuroimmune interactions, radiotherapy-induced neural injury and persistent pain may contribute to the establishment of an immunosuppressive, wound-like microenvironment that ultimately affects treatment response and tumor progression. Finally, we discuss the translational significance of incorporating pain phenotyping into combined radiotherapy and immunotherapy strategies for head and neck cancer. Opioid-sparing multimodal analgesia, neuromodulation, and neuroimmune-targeted interventions may represent promising approaches to simultaneously improve symptom control and antitumor immunity. We propose that radiotherapy-associated pain may be considered a candidate neuroimmune phenotype rather than a passive adverse event, providing a new conceptual framework for precision management and translational research in head and neck cancer. Full article

Background: Recreational mini-football is associated with a high incidence of lower-limb injuries, largely driven by neuromuscular deficits and insufficient exposure to structured preventive training. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a hybrid injury-prevention program combining the FIFA 11+ protocol with customized neuromuscular interventions on functional performance and injury-related risk factors. Methods: Forty male recreational mini-football players were included in a retrospective analysis of data collected during the routine implementation of a 12-week hybrid preventive training program. Participants were allocated to an intervention group (n = 20) or control group (n = 20) according to routine training practices rather than randomization. The intervention was performed twice weekly. Outcome measures included lower-limb strength (Kineo system), dynamic balance (Y-Balance Test), functional hop performance (Single Hop and Side Hop tests), and agility/change-of-direction ability (Illinois and 505 tests). Results: The intervention group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in lower-limb peak force across all muscle groups (all adjusted p < 0.001), as well as in single-leg hop, side hop, and agility/change-of-direction performance (all adjusted p < 0.001) compared to controls. No significant changes were observed in dynamic balance outcomes. Conclusions: A hybrid neuromuscular training program combining FIFA 11+ with customized exercises was associated with improvements in lower-limb strength, hop performance, and agility/change-of-direction ability in recreational mini-football players. These findings suggest that integrating customized exercises into standardized training programs may enhance functional performance and positively influence modifiable factors associated with injury risk. Full article

Background: With increasing life expectancy, older adult populations worldwide are growing rapidly. Falls are among the most prominent problems that older adults face. This study aimed to assess the educational components of the Stopping Elderly Accidents, Deaths, & Injuries (STEADI) program for improving knowledge, skills, and behavioral intentions for fall prevention among older adults. Methods: A quasi-experimental study was conducted with a non-equivalent control group pretest–posttest design, involving 128 older women (≥60 years) in a community center in Riyadh. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. Pearson’s chi-square test was performed to compare demographic and physical characteristics between the groups. Independent-sample t-tests, effect size calculation (Cohen’s d), and ANCOVA-adjusted analyses were used to compare post-intervention outcomes between groups. Within-group changes were compared using a paired t-test. Additionally, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the demographic, health, and physical characteristics of the participants. Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: The intervention group showed improved knowledge (t = 11.654), skills (t = 7.961), and intention to perform preventive behaviors (t = 3.785), with a significant p-value of <0.0001. Large intervention effects were observed for knowledge (Cohen’s d = 2.30) and skills (Cohen’s d = 1.57). ANCOVA-adjusted analyses confirmed significant intervention effects for knowledge (adjusted mean difference = 5.06, 95% CI 4.46–5.66, p < 0.001) and skills (adjusted mean difference = 1.87, 95% CI 1.56–2.18, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The results indicate that the STEADI program produces significant short-term improvements in knowledge, skills, and behavioral intentions related to fall prevention. The findings emphasize the importance of integrating prevention programs into community settings and activating the role of families in supporting preventive practices. Full article

Background: Isokinetic strength of the knee joint represents a significant determinant of athletic performance and injury prevention; however, its relationship with explosive performance in young female athletes remains insufficiently explored. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationships between isokinetic strength of the knee joint at different angular velocities and explosive jumping performance in young female athletes. Methods: The research sample consisted of 13 young female athletes enrolled in sport-oriented educational programs specializing in athletics. Explosive lower-limb power was assessed using performance tests for countermovement jump (CMJ), countermovement jump free arms (CMJ FAs) and squat jump (SJ) administered with the Chronojump system. Isokinetic strength of the knee flexors and extensors was assessed using the Humac Norm dynamometer in the concentric mode at angular velocities of 60°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s. Peak torque, the ipsilateral H:Q ratio, and bilateral asymmetries were evaluated. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationships between the investigated parameters. Results: The strongest relationships with explosive performance were observed for hamstring strength at an angular velocity of 180°/s, where significant high correlations were identified with performance in the CMJ (r = 0.693), CMJ FA (r = 0.754), and SJ (r = 0.713). In contrast, quadriceps strength demonstrated predominantly low to moderate associations with jumping performance, while no significant correlations were confirmed at an angular velocity of 300°/s. Bilateral asymmetries of the knee extensors and flexors were generally low, ranging approximately between 7 and 10%, whereas the values of the ipsilateral H:Q ratio were within the physiological range of approximately 50–55%. Conclusions: The results suggest that the ability to generate force at higher contraction velocities, particularly in the hamstrings, is significantly associated with explosive performance in young female athletes. At the same time, isokinetic strength assessment appears to be an appropriate tool for evaluating muscular strength, muscle balance, and potential asymmetries in youth sports. However, explosive performance cannot be explained solely by the level of maximal muscular strength, but rather by a complex interaction of neuromuscular and biomechanical factors. Full article

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects millions globally and represents a major health burden. This narrative review adopts a life-course perspective to synthesize current evidence on CKD as a consequence of adverse early-life exposures that disrupt nephrogenesis, leading to kidney programming and reduced nephron endowment. The objective of this review is to integrate emerging mechanistic and translational evidence linking developmental programming, gut microbiota, and redox biology within a unified gut–redox axis framework, and to identify potential targets for early-life prevention of CKD. Central to this process is the gut–redox axis, a bidirectional network linking gut microbiota with host redox homeostasis. A balanced axis preserves epithelial integrity, metabolic stability, and immune regulation, whereas dysbiosis and oxidative stress form a self-perpetuating cycle that promotes CKD and related comorbidities. Maternal oxidative stress and impaired microbial transmission exacerbate early-life dysbiosis, persistent epigenetic alterations, and nephron deficits. In adulthood, protein-bound uremic toxins amplify oxidative injury and inflammation, further perturbing microbial composition. Experimental and clinical studies show that early-life interventions—including probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, antioxidants, and toxin-lowering strategies—can restore gut–redox balance and improve renal outcomes. These insights highlight opportunities for precision prevention and mechanism-based therapies targeting CKD across the life course. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to quantify the kinetic demands of multiple hops in series, movement tasks that are commonly used in strength and conditioning and physiotherapeutic practice. Focus was placed on comparing the demands of a quintuple hop (QH) task to a triple hop (TH) task, with particular focus on quantifying the eccentric braking stretch-load demands. Methods: Forty-four male university athletes (age 20.1 ± 1.4 years; body mass 71.2 ± 8.6 kg; stature 171.9 ± 5.1 cm) completed the hopping tasks across 54× track-embedded force platforms, where braking and propulsion kinetics were measured. Results: Significant (p < 0.001) averaged increases in maximal vertical (~32%) and horizontal braking impulses (~56%) for both TH and QH tasks were noted across hops. The last two hops of the QH task were found to have greater averaged vertical (~58%) and horizontal (~180%) stretch-load demands than the two initial hops (p < 0.001). Conclusions: This is the first study where an extensive summary of kinetic measures for both TH and QH has been reported. The findings highlight the biomechanical, stretch-load aspects of these exercises, which can help practitioners better prescribe and program hops for injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance enhancement. Full article

Background/Objectives: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears in children and adolescents are occurring at the intersection of skeletal growth and often early sports specialization, requiring a specialized approach, as pediatric ACL injury is not merely a scaled-down version of adult injury. Methods: This review synthesizes the current understanding of diagnostic protocols, evolution of knee morphology and neuromechanical risk factors characteristic of the pediatric population. It further examines the spectrum of specific management strategies including conservative approaches, primary repair and various reconstruction techniques, alongside rehabilitation, prevention and follow-up procedures. Results: In the diagnostic phase, pediatric-specific clinical and imaging findings must be carefully interpreted. Certain anatomical and neuromuscular characteristics seem to be linked to injury. Management remains complex, requiring a delicate balance between restoring stability and sparing bone growth. While conservative treatment may be attempted in specific cases, it must be promptly redirected toward surgical intervention if persistent instability occurs. Consensus on optimal surgical strategies remain impeded by the lack of robust evidence. Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) still faces challenges such as growth disturbances, high graft failure, contralateral rupture rates and the biological process of graft remodeling. However, ACLR currently remains the gold standard compared to ACL repair. Tailored rehabilitation and robust prevention programs are needed. Conclusions: The management of ACL rupture in the pediatric population remains complex and constrained by important evidence gaps. Continued refinement of management strategies and future prospective, multicenter pediatric studies are needed. Full article

The current study illustrates the modeling of a biocompatible poly γ-glutamic acid (PGA)–chitosan–rGO nanocomposite hydrogel scaffold, which showed a promising novel scaffold for stimulating central nerve regeneration that addresses the shortcomings of recent therapies and improves tissue engineering, controls inflammation, and restores lost functions after spinal cord injuries (SCIs). In the implementation part of the study, the COMSOL program’s top-notch modeling of a detailed investigation of how a scaffold’s in vivo diffusion affects injured neurons. Michaelis–Menten kinetics is used to characterize the enzyme process of releasing the outer covering shell of the scaffold, PGA, from a biomaterial matrix to the nerve cell. Results suggested that the injectable hydrogel scaffold theoretically reduces extracellular glutamate concentrations, presenting a potential mechanism to mitigate localized excitotoxicity. Future in vivo experimental validation is required to determine if this reduction prevents neural cell death Full article