Search Results (114)

This study investigates the influence of an austenitic buffer layer on the microstructure, hardness, and abrasive wear resistance of Fe–Cr–C hardfacing applied to high-chromium white cast iron (HCWCI) hammer tips used in sugarcane shredders. Hardfacing was performed by shielded metal arc welding with two Fe–Cr–C layers deposited directly on the HCWCI substrate and with an austenitic buffer layer followed by an Fe–Cr–C hardfacing layer. Microstructural characterization was carried out using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, while hardness profiles were determined by micro-Vickers testing. Abrasive wear behavior was evaluated using a dry sand–rubber wheel test according to ASTM G65. The non-buffered hardfacing layer exhibited a hypereutectic Fe–Cr–C microstructure consisting of coarse primary chromium carbides, resulting in high hardness values of approximately 840 HV. In contrast, the buffered sample showed an austenite-rich matrix with finer eutectic carbides and reduced hardness of around 600 HV. Abrasive wear tests of the non-buffered sample showed a lower mass loss, whereas the buffered sample exhibited a substantially higher mass loss. These results demonstrate that Fe–Cr–C hardfacing without a buffer layer provides superior wear resistance. Full article

In this investigation, optical emission spectrometers, a Brinell hardness tester, optical light and scanning microscopes, and X-ray diffraction were used for general metallurgical characterization of the experimental irons in as-cast states. The hole-drilling method was used to assess residual stress distributions under gross and net casting weight conditions. To create experimental irons using the casting process, raw materials were transformed from a solid to a liquid state using an industrial furnace and ladle to melt and cast, respectively. The casting shakeout temperatures for samples A and B were recorded at 60 °C and 180 °C, respectively, after a characteristic stress lattice casting component was allowed to cool for about 1645 min and 1295 min. Chemical analysis verified the experimental hypoeutectic irons of ASTM A532, Type A, Class III, 25%Cr, i.e., high chromium white cast iron alloys. Additionally, it was discovered that micrographs were made of an austenitic-martensitic matrix that contained eutectic M₇C₃ and secondary M₂₃C₆-type carbides. The residual stress distributions were found to be influenced by various carbide and metallic volume fraction proportions, casting section thickness, and casting shakeout duration and temperature. Optimal hardness values, however, were shown to be associated with higher residual stress distributions and an increase in major alloying elements in experimental irons. Consequently, different residual stress distributions are produced by casting shakeout temperatures at lower and higher values under gross and net casting weight conditions. Full article

This paper presents a practical implementation of relative primary radiation thermometry (RPRT) together with MultiFixRadSoft, an open-source software package developed in accordance with the Mise-en-Pratique for the kelvin (MeP-K) for realization of the thermodynamic temperature scale and uncertainty evaluation under the new definition of the kelvin. The software enables realization of temperature scales using ITS-90 metal fixed points as well as metal–carbon and metal–carbide–carbon eutectic high-temperature fixed points (HTFPs) for both radiation thermometers and radiometers. It incorporates automated routines for melting plateau analysis, including determination of the point of inflection, liquidus point, and melting range, together with correction modules for size-of-source effect, detector nonlinearity, emissivity, and temperature drop. Validation is demonstrated through experimental realization using six fixed points (Cu, Fe–C, Co–C, Pd–C, Ru–C, and WC–C) and a linear radiation thermometer. The software also supports ITS-90 extrapolation procedures and flexible calibration schemes (n = 1 to n ≥ 3), with automated Sakuma–Hattori fitting and full uncertainty propagation compliant with MeP-K requirements. The results show excellent agreement with manual analyses and published data, confirming the correctness of the implemented algorithms. By integrating data processing, scale realization, and uncertainty analysis within a unified and transparent framework, MultiFixRadSoft provides a robust and accessible tool for traceable radiometric thermometry, supporting emerging NMIs and industrial laboratories while promoting the wider adoption of primary thermodynamic temperature realization methods. Full article

Wear of crushing and grinding equipment components causes frequent maintenance and downtime; therefore, effective repair hardfacing routes are required to extend service life. This study investigates plasma transferred arc (PTA) surfacing of 35L cast steel using a high-chromium Fe–Cr–C powder (PG-S27) and clarifies how the welding current (40–120 A) governs layer geometry, microstructure, phase constitution, hardness, and dry-sliding tribological behavior. All deposits exhibited a dendritic–eutectic structure; increasing current led to dendrite coarsening, wider interdendritic regions, and deeper penetration/dilution. X-ray diffraction indicated an α-Fe matrix with chromium carbide phases (Cr₇C₃/Cr₂₃C₆), while the carbide-related signal decreased with higher current, consistent with enhanced dilution. The coatings showed a strong hardening effect compared with the substrate (~190 HV), reaching ~625–650 HV at 40–80 A and decreasing to ~556–589 HV at 100–120 A. In dry ball-on-flat sliding, the steady-state friction coefficient was nearly unchanged (μ ≈ 0.50–0.55) across all regimes; however, wear resistance depended strongly on current: the lowest wear was achieved at low-to-moderate currents (40–80 A), whereas higher currents (100–120 A) resulted in substantially increased material loss, approaching the substrate level. These results identify 40–80 A as the most favorable current window for obtaining wear-resistant PTA layers from PG-S27 on 35L steel. Full article

Two cobalt alloys and one nickel alloy, containing Ta and C in similar atomic contents and either 5 or 10 wt.% Al, were cast. Their microstructures and their oxidation behaviors in air at 1200 °C over 50 h were investigated. All contained eutectic script-like TaC carbides and a dendritic matrix which was either single-phased (FCC) or double-phased (FCC + Co₃Al). The cobalt sample with 5 wt.% oxidized catastrophically, became thinner, lost all its TaC, and was covered by a thick oxide shell (outer CoO and inner mixture of CoO, CoAl₂O₄ and Ta-rich oxides). The two other alloys, Ni-based with 5 wt.% Al and Co-based with 10 wt.% Al, oxidized more slowly, with a mass gain kinetic slightly lower than that for chromia-forming alloys at 1200 °C and a continuous duplex oxide scale made of an outer MAl₂O₄ spinel and inner Al₂O₃ scales. This evidences the existence of two Al content thresholds, depending on the base element, that must be exceeded to obtain acceptable oxidation behavior. Full article

Freshwater scarcity is increasing day by day and has already reached a threatening level, especially in remotely populated areas. One of the technological solutions to this rising concern could be the use of the solar-based humidification–dehumidification (SHDH) method for water desalination. This technology is a promising solution but has challenges such as solar intermittency. This challenge can be solved by integrating SHDH with the phase change material as a solar energy storage medium. Therefore, a novel nano-enhanced binary eutectic phase change material (NEPCM) was developed in this project. PCM consisting of 70 wt.% stearic acid (ST) and 30 wt.% suberic acid (SBU) with a varying concentration of silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles (NPs) (0.1 to 3 wt.%) was synthesized specifically considering the need of SHDH application. The systematic thermophysical characterization was conducted to investigate their energy storage capacity, thermal durability, and performance consistency over repeated cycles. DSC analysis revealed that the addition of SiC NPs preserved the thermal stability of the NEPCM, while the phase transition temperature remained nearly unchanged with a variation of less than 0.74%. The value of latent heat is inversely related to the nanoparticle concentration, i.e., from 142.75 kJ/kg for the base PCM to 131.24 kJ/kg at 3 wt.% loading. This corresponds to reductions in latent heat ranging between 0.98% and 8.06%. The FTIR measurement confirms that no chemical reactions or no new functional groups were formed. All original functional groups of ST and SBU remained intact, showing that incorporating the SiC NP to the PCM lead to physical interactions (e.g., hydrogen bonding or surface adsorption). The TGA analysis showed that the SiC NPs in the NEPCM act as supporting material, and its nano-doping enhanced the final degradation temperature and thermal stability. There was negligible change in thermal conductivity for nanoparticle loadings of 0.1% and 0.4%; however, it increased progressively by 5.2%, 10.8%, 23.12%, and 25.8% at nanoparticle loadings of 0.7%, 1%, 2%, and 3%, respectively, at 25 °C. Thermal reliability was analyzed through a DSC thermal cycling test which confirmed the suitability of the material for the desired applications. Full article

The oxidation behavior and microstructures of the GTD-111 Ni-based superalloy were investigated following heat treatment at 850 °C and 1000 °C for up to 5000 h, using Optical Microscopy (OM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). SEM/EDS analysis showed that the microstructure of the samples mainly consisted of γ′ precipitates in the matrix, eutectic phases, and several types of carbides. Cross-sectional analysis revealed that the oxidation region was composed of three layers: a top layer (NiO, TiO₂, Cr₂O₃), a sublayer (Ta₂O₅, TiO₂), and an inner layer (Al₂O₃), followed by a needle-like Ti-containing phase. The oxidation kinetics followed the parabolic law as a function of time at each temperature. After the heat treatments, the dendritic regions of all specimens consisted of cuboidal primary γ′ precipitates and spherical secondary γ′ precipitates. Chinese-script-like and blocky-shaped MC carbides, as well as three types of M₂₃C₆ carbides, were found in the interdendritic region. The fracture mode of the tensile specimens transformed from cleavage (brittle) fracture to ductile fracture as the temperature increased. Cracks were observed inside the MC carbides on the fracture surface, which may serve as significant crack initiation sites. Full article

This study investigates the chemical composition, microstructural evolution, and mechanical behavior of hardfacing coatings produced by Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) using electrodes with varying niobium (Nb) contents (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%), deposited at a constant current of 120 A and employing two- and three-layer configurations. Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) revealed a significant reduction in niobium transfer efficiency, with the Nb content in the coatings reaching up to 3.5 wt%, approximately 50% lower than in the electrodes. Chromium (Cr) content also decreased with increasing Nb additions due to the higher thermochemical affinity of niobium for oxygen, which promotes the formation of Nb oxides during welding. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses confirmed the presence of complex carbides, primarily NbC and M₇C₃-type Cr carbides, embedded in eutectic austenitic matrices. The incorporation of niobium promoted grain refinement and the precipitation of primary NbC carbides, particularly in multilayer coatings where dilution effects were reduced. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) provided additional evidence, revealing an increased density of NbC particles and a concomitant reduction in CrC particle size with higher Nb contents. Microhardness testing showed a slight increase in hardness with increasing niobium, attributed to the higher intrinsic hardness and finer size of NbC particles. Overall, these findings highlight the role of niobium as an effective grain refiner and hard-phase promoter in SMAW-applied coatings, providing a foundation for optimizing wear-resistant overlays for demanding industrial environments. Full article

In this study, crack-free M2 high-speed steel (HSS) was successfully fabricated by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) using a relatively high substrate preheating temperature of 260 °C. The influence of the resulting microstructure on the hardness and tensile properties along the build direction was thoroughly investigated. The results demonstrate that M2 HSS achieves a relative density of 99.6% when processed with a laser power of 280 W and a scanning speed of 0.8 m s⁻¹. The microstructure predominantly consists of fine martensite, along with retained austenite, lower bainite, and a small quantity of eutectic carbide. With increasing build height (from 0 to 9 mm), the fraction of lower bainite decreases from 32.1 to 13.1%, while the austenite content increases from 0.9 to 29.1%. These microstructural changes lead to a gradual reduction in the material’s strength along the build direction. Specifically, the hardness and tensile strength decrease from 845 HV_0.3 and 1520 MPa to 745 HV_0.3 and 1251 MPa, respectively. Additionally, the elongation varies between 2.6% and 3.3% across the different build heights. Full article

The Ni-Resist ductile iron, with a nickel content ranging from 18% to 36%, is a material designed for service under extreme conditions. One of the main objectives of this study was to determine the minimum nickel content required to stabilize the austenitic structure at cryogenic temperatures. Additional aims included investigating structural features related to the solidification of austenite dendrites, graphite nodules, and eutectic carbides. Moreover, the electrical conductivity, which is critical for certain applications of Ni-Resist ductile irons, was also examined. To this end, castings with varying nickel content (21%, 25%, 28%, and 35%) and with or without chromium additions were prepared. Microstructural characterization was performed using optical, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and electrical conductivity measurements. The results showed that a highly branched dendritic microstructure predominates, with graphite nodules located in interdendritic regions and along austenite grain boundaries. In chromium-alloyed ductile irons, the austenitic matrix contains Cr = 1.7 ± 0.3 wt.% in the vicinity of M₇C₃-type eutectic carbides. Furthermore, thermal stability analysis indicated that a minimum nickel content of 25 wt.% is sufficient to ensure structural stability at cryogenic temperatures down to 25 K. Finally, complementing the above-mentioned investigations, the electrical conductivity characteristics of the studied high-nickel austenitic cast irons were determined. Full article

Cobalt-based alloys such as Stellite 6 are widely applied in demanding conditions because of their good resistance to wear, erosion, and corrosion, but further improvements in erosion resistance are still required. This work analyzes the effect of adding titanium and tungsten on the structure and properties of Stellite 6 coatings produced by laser cladding, aiming to enhance their erosion resistance. Penetrant tests confirmed that the additions did not reduce coating quality, and macroscopic observations showed that appropriate process parameters allowed for defect-free coatings with strong bonding to the substrate. Microstructural studies carried out by SEM/EDS (Scanning Electron Microscopy/ Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) and XRD (X-ray Diffraction) revealed that the reference Stellite 6 coating consisted of a cobalt-based austenitic matrix with interdendritic chromium carbides, while Ti and W additions led to the in situ formation of primary and eutectic (Ti,W)C carbides. Transmission electron microscopy showed a gradient in tungsten concentration inside the primary carbides, with progressive tungsten dissolution into the TiC lattice. Although different powder compositions had only a moderate effect on hardness, erosion tests demonstrated that the coatings with Ti and W exhibited clearly improved resistance. In particular, the in situ carbides enhanced erosion resistance at 30° impingement angles, while also maintaining high resistance under 90° impact. These findings confirm that modifying Stellite 6 with Ti and W during laser cladding is an effective way to improve its durability in erosive conditions. Full article

Thermal analysis (TA) has been a valuable tool for controlling the carbon equivalent (CE) of cast irons. Additionally, this technique can provide enhanced control over melt quality, allowing for the avoidance of defects such as undesirable graphite morphology and the formation of carbides. To obtain the most valuable information from the TA, it is necessary to minimize the variations in the filling operation of the TA cups. However, the mass and pouring temperature of TA cups can vary in TA’s typical foundry operations. A design of experiments was performed to determine whether specific parameters of cooling curves used for quality control can distinguish the inoculation effect in the melt when the mass and the pouring temperature of TA cups are varied. The minimum temperature of the eutectic arrest proved to be a robust inoculation potential control parameter when variations in the cup’s mass were within a range of 268–390 g and were filled at any pouring temperature between 1235 and 1369 °C. Lighter cups under 268 g and poured at a low temperature are not suitable for controlling inoculation potential by TA; however, they remain helpful in controlling CE. These later cups are related to cooling times of less than 180 s, which can serve as a criterion for discarding unsuitable samples. A bimodal population of cell surfaces was revealed in the samples, with the population of small cells being proportionally more numerous in samples with lower TE_min values. Full article

This study presents the structural and compositional characterisation of a newly developed Ti55Al27Mo13 alloy synthesised via aluminothermic reaction. The alloy was designed to overcome the limitations of conventional processing routes for high–melting–point elements such as Ti and Mo, enabling the formation of a complex, multi–phase microstructure in a single high–temperature step. The aim was to develop and characterise a material with microstructural features expected to enhance wear resistance, oxidation behaviour, and thermal stability in future applications. The alloy is intended as a precursor for composite nanopowders and surface coatings applied to aluminium–, magnesium–, and iron–based substrates subjected to mechanical and thermal loading. Elemental analysis (XRF, EDS) confirmed the presence of Ti, Al, Mo, and minor elements such as Si, Fe, and C. Microstructural investigations using laser confocal and scanning electron microscopy revealed a heterogeneous structure comprising solid solutions, eutectic regions, and dispersed oxide and carbide phases. Notably, the alloy exhibits high hardness values, reaching >2400 HV in Al₂O₃ regions and ~1300 HV in Mo– and Si–enriched solid solutions. These results suggest the material’s substantial potential for protective surface engineering. Further tribological, thermal, and corrosion testing, conducted with meticulous attention to detail, will follow to validate its functional performance in target applications. Full article

The phase composition and morphological characteristics of eutectic carbides are key factors affecting the wear resistance and fatigue life of high-speed steel. In this study, a combination of experimental characterization and thermodynamic calculations was used to systematically reveal the dynamic regulation mechanism of cooling rate on eutectic carbides in M2Al high-speed steel. The results indicate that within a cooling rate range of 5 to 225 °C/min, the steel always contains a small amount of face-centered cubic-structured MC-type eutectic carbides and a large number of hexagonal close-packed structured M₂C-type eutectic carbides. The three-dimensional morphology of MC-type eutectic carbides is smooth and rod-like, and is insensitive to the cooling rate, while the three-dimensional morphology of M₂C-type eutectic carbides evolves from lamellar to dendritic with an increasing cooling rate. The increase in cooling rate significantly reduces the average size of eutectic carbides, increases the total area fraction, and improves the distribution uniformity. Additionally, the increase in cooling rate also promotes the significant refinement of secondary dendrites in M2Al high-speed steel, and the relationship between secondary dendrite arm spacing and cooling rate is ${\lambda }_{SDAS}=149.42\cdot {C_R}^{-0.39}$. Finally, combining thermodynamic calculations with kinetic analysis, this study found that the formation of eutectic carbides is dominated by the segregation of elements such as V, Mo, and C during the final stage of solidification, while the chemical composition and three-dimensional morphological evolution of M₂C-type eutectic carbides are synergistically controlled by the diffusion and competitive growth of elements such as W, Mo, and C in austenite. This study provides a theoretical basis for the solidification process and eutectic carbide control of M2Al high-speed steel. Full article

The HP40Nb alloy, commonly used in the petrochemical industry as a heat-resistant material, undergoes significant microstructural changes at high temperatures. This study examined samples from the HP40Nb radiant tube used in a reformer furnace, exposed to 950, 1050, and 1150 °C for 2 and 8 h. Metallographic analysis, including optical microscopy, SEM, EDS, and XRPD, revealed that the as-cast alloy has an austenitic dendritic matrix with primary eutectic-like carbides (M₂₃C₆ and MC types). Prolonged exposure to high temperatures transformed the primary carbides into coarse M₂₃C₆ forms, losing their lamellar shape. The number of secondary carbides decreased with increasing temperature, and at 1150 °C for 480 min, secondary Cr₂₃C₆ carbides nearly decomposed, and Nb carbides dissolved into the austenitic matrix. Full article