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Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2026 | Viewed by 5481

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Piotr Kuwalek

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Department of Metrology, Electronics and Light Engineering, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Faculty of Control, Robotics and Electrical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
Interests: advanced metering infrastructure; diagnostics; metrology; power quality; signal processing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Grzegorz Wiczyński

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Guest Editor

Department of Metrology, Electronics and Light Engineering, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Faculty of Control, Robotics and Electrical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
Interests: advanced metering infrastructure; detection of power quality disturbances; identification of disturbing loads; metrology; power quality diagnostics; power quality evaluation; power quality monitoring
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Mariusz Rząsa

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and Informatics, Opole University of Technology, Proszkowska 76 Street, 45-758 Opole, Poland
Interests: metrology; flow measurement
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Modern technological solutions, including those based on machine learning algorithms, require reliable, optimal and solid measurement results from sensors or entire measurement systems to function correctly, describing the variables used to make decisions or for control. This situation poses significant challenges in the metrology of modern measurement systems and sensors. Obtaining reliable data that enable the precise operation of modern technological solutions requires the development of new measurement systems and specific sensors. Almost always, achieving such a goal is preceded by long-term complementary research, the results of which allow for breakthrough achievements and open up further research areas.

This Special Issue will present the most important problems in metrology in modern measurement systems and sensors, in particular in the areas of design, application and research. It is also likely that the issues presented in this way will open up challenges related to modern measurement systems and sensors. This Special Issue will focus on the following topics:

Measurements of physical and chemical quantities;
Measurements in biology and medicine;
Measurements and diagnostic systems;
Processing of measurement signals;
Analysis of measurement results and assessment of uncertainty;
Modeling of measurement systems.

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Metrology.

Dr. Piotr Kuwalek
Dr. Grzegorz Wiczyński
Prof. Dr. Mariusz Rząsa
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

measurements
measurement diagnostics
measurement infrastructure
metrology
signal analysis
signal processing

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 9216 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Metrological Evaluation of Selected Low-Cost NDIR CO₂ Sensors for UAV-Based Air Quality Measurements

by Alicja Wiora and Józef Wiora

Sensors 2026, 26(10), 2988; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26102988 - 9 May 2026

Viewed by 594

Abstract

Air-quality measurements performed using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) enable observations that are difficult or impossible to obtain with stationary monitoring systems. Although low-cost

{CO}_{2}

sensors are widely applied in such work, their accuracy is restricted by environmental influences. This study assesses the [...] Read more.

Air-quality measurements performed using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) enable observations that are difficult or impossible to obtain with stationary monitoring systems. Although low-cost

{CO}_{2}

sensors are widely applied in such work, their accuracy is restricted by environmental influences. This study assesses the metrological performance of inexpensive NDIR

{CO}_{2}

sensors using a controlled test chamber. The TESTO probe results show strong temperature sensitivity, with

{CO}_{2}

indications varying by approximately 17 ppm per 1 °C. Measurements at

- 2.6

°C produced implausibly low concentrations of 275–280 ppm, despite the global baseline being about 430 ppm. Electromagnetic interference and humidity produced negligible effects on the indications. No differences appeared between measurements taken during UAV flight, after landing, or under laboratory conditions. Comparison with the manufacturer-calibrated Figaro CDM7160 sensor revealed a substantial shift in the characteristic at the lowest

{CO}_{2}

concentration level and a marked reduction in sensitivity, which shows that the sensor needs recalibration. The findings confirm that investigated low-cost

{CO}_{2}

sensors provide reasonably accurate absolute measurements only when environmental conditions are correctly compensated. However, their relatively high measurement uncertainty prevents reliable detection of small concentration changes and therefore limits their suitability for precise UAV-based air-quality studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges)

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18 pages, 3108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Measurement Characteristics of Electricity Meters with Different Input Configurations Under IEC 61000-4-19-Based Conducted Disturbances

by Grzegorz Sadkowski and Andrzej Bień

Sensors 2026, 26(9), 2781; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26092781 - 29 Apr 2026

Viewed by 652

Abstract

The influence of conducted electromagnetic disturbances on the energy measurement error of electricity meters remains insufficiently explored in electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) studies, particularly in the frequency range above the classical harmonic domain. The aim of this study was to investigate the susceptibility of electricity meters with different input configurations to conducted disturbances in the frequency range 1–150 kHz, including the 2–150 kHz band covered by IEC 61000-4-19. The novelty of this work lies in the comparative analysis of meters employing a shunt resistor, current transformer, Rogowski coil, Hall-effect sensor, and a digital system based on a Merging Unit and Sampled Values. The tests were performed as a preliminary screening stage of the study, using a test procedure based on IEC 61000-4-19, in which the energy measurement error was determined from the difference between the energy measured by the meter under test and that measured by a reference meter while disturbances were injected into the current circuit. The results showed that, for most of the tested electronic meters, the influence of the disturbances at the applied 1 A level was limited. For the tested Class B meters, the observed maximum error deviations remained below 1%, while the largest deviation under continuous-wave disturbance was observed for the Merging Unit + SV system. The highest immunity to amplitude-modulated disturbances was found for the shunt-based meter and the Rogowski coil-based meter. In none of the investigated cases were large error deviations on the order of several percent or several tens of percent observed. The obtained results indicate that, under the applied test conditions, conducted disturbances in the investigated frequency range did not cause significant deterioration of the metrological performance of most of the analyzed electronic meters. However, the results should be interpreted as a comparative assessment under modified IEC-based test conditions, rather than as a full compliance evaluation at the normative disturbance levels for directly connected meters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges)

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27 pages, 4918 KB

Open AccessArticle

MultiFixRadSoft: A Comprehensive Tool for Primary Relative Radiometric Scale Realization in Radiation Thermometry

by Mehtap Ertürk, Mevlüt Karabulut, Ömer Faruk Kadı, Can Gözönünde, Patrik Broberg, Åge Andreas Falnes Olsen and Humbet Nasibli

Sensors 2026, 26(8), 2489; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26082489 - 17 Apr 2026

Viewed by 343

Abstract

This paper presents a practical implementation of relative primary radiation thermometry (RPRT) together with MultiFixRadSoft, an open-source software package developed in accordance with the Mise-en-Pratique for the kelvin (MeP-K) for realization of the thermodynamic temperature scale and uncertainty evaluation under the new definition of the kelvin. The software enables realization of temperature scales using ITS-90 metal fixed points as well as metal–carbon and metal–carbide–carbon eutectic high-temperature fixed points (HTFPs) for both radiation thermometers and radiometers. It incorporates automated routines for melting plateau analysis, including determination of the point of inflection, liquidus point, and melting range, together with correction modules for size-of-source effect, detector nonlinearity, emissivity, and temperature drop. Validation is demonstrated through experimental realization using six fixed points (Cu, Fe–C, Co–C, Pd–C, Ru–C, and WC–C) and a linear radiation thermometer. The software also supports ITS-90 extrapolation procedures and flexible calibration schemes (n = 1 to n ≥ 3), with automated Sakuma–Hattori fitting and full uncertainty propagation compliant with MeP-K requirements. The results show excellent agreement with manual analyses and published data, confirming the correctness of the implemented algorithms. By integrating data processing, scale realization, and uncertainty analysis within a unified and transparent framework, MultiFixRadSoft provides a robust and accessible tool for traceable radiometric thermometry, supporting emerging NMIs and industrial laboratories while promoting the wider adoption of primary thermodynamic temperature realization methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges)

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23 pages, 4862 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Insights into Islanding Detection in PV Inverters: Foundations for a Parallel-Operation Test Standard

by Krzysztof Chmielowiec, Aleks Piszczek and Łukasz Topolski

Sensors 2025, 25(24), 7582; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25247582 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 896

Abstract

With the rapid increase in photovoltaic (PV) micro-installations in Europe, ensuring the stability and safety of the power grid has become a critical challenge. A key aspect in this context is the reliable detection of unintentional islanding by distributed energy resources. This paper presents the results of metrological tests on seven commercially available three-phase and single-phase PV inverters, conducted in accordance with the requirements of the EN 50549-1 and EN 62116 standards. A dedicated test setup was developed to enable measurements following standardized procedures. The tests assessed both the response time and the effectiveness of islanding detection mechanisms under various fault scenarios, including simulations of autonomous operation of multiple inverters. The main findings indicate that while all inverters with active islanding protection successfully detected islanding within the mandated 2-s limit, their individual response times varied significantly. Parallel operation further influenced this behavior: when one inverter operated with its islanding protection intentionally disabled, the remaining units exhibited notably increased detection times, though still within regulatory thresholds. Moreover, the inverter with disabled protection was capable of sustaining stable islanded operation indefinitely under balanced load conditions. Repeated multi-inverter tests also revealed significant variability in detection time within the same scenario, demonstrating that detection dynamics are sensitive to subtle changes in operating conditions. These findings highlight important limitations of existing certification procedures, which focus primarily on single-inverter testing. Real-world interactions between simultaneously operating inverters can substantially affect detection performance. The results therefore support the need to revise and extend test standards to include controlled multi-inverter parallel-operation conditions, ensuring the safe integration of prosumer PV systems into distribution networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges)

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17 pages, 8988 KB

Open AccessArticle

Misalignment Effects on Power Gathered by Optical Fiber Pyrometer

by Salvador Vargas, Alberto Tapetado and Carmen Vázquez

Sensors 2025, 25(22), 7011; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25227011 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 603

Abstract

This article presents a model for analyzing the effect of misalignments in the optical power gathered by a single-color fiber-optic off-axis pyrometer when there is a tilting angle between the longitudinal fiber axis and the plane of the emitted surface. The model takes into account the fiber parameters, such as the diameter and the numerical aperture, as well as the target object size and measuring distance. Simulations show the simultaneous influence of tilting angle and lateral displacement. This provides key behavioral insights to guide alignment and calibration, helping to avoid temperature measurement errors in advanced manufacturing. The model allows integration of the emissivity angle dependence. Results show that the influence of lateral misalignment is negligible for values below 15 µm (which is 1/10 of the 150 µm minimum distance) when considering a 160 µm object size and a 60° tilting angle. The displacement influence, for a fixed tilting angle, is higher in specific directions of displacement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges)

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17 pages, 2428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Optical Measurements to Assess Form Deviations of Cylindrical Parts Made Using FDM Additive Technology

by Anna Bujarska, Paweł Zmarzły and Paweł Szczygieł

Sensors 2025, 25(18), 5855; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25185855 - 19 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1036

Abstract

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), also known as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), is a widely used additive manufacturing (AM) method for thermoplastic materials due to its low cost, accessibility, and ability to produce fully functional machine parts. Cylindrical components, common in mechanical devices, require precise dimensional and form accuracy to ensure long service life. To assess their quality, cylindricity deviation measurements are essential, as they reveal defects generated during the printing process. This study investigates the potential of optical scanning for measuring form deviations specifically cylindricity and roundness of ABS components manufactured via FDM. The influence of printing orientation (0°, 45°, 90°) on dimensional accuracy was examined using experimental models comprising three series of ten samples each, with identical process parameters except orientation. Measurements were performed using a Zeiss Prismo Navigator (Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) coordinate measuring machine and an ATOS II Triple Scan (GOM, Brunswick, Germany) optical scanner. Results indicate that print orientation significantly affects cylindricity deviation. The lowest deviations were achieved for specific orientations, offering guidelines for producing cylindrical surfaces of acceptable quality. The findings also show that optical scanners are not suitable for precise form deviation analysis in FDM-printed parts, confirming the higher accuracy of tactile coordinate measurement methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology in Modern Measurement Systems and Sensors: Design, Application, Research and Challenges)

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