Search Results (1,000)

Background/Objectives: Current estimates suggest that 6% of COVID-19 survivors develop a post-viral sequela known as Long COVID. Among those at risk for this sequela, pregnant individuals are a vulnerable patient population, but they are understudied as to the nature of their symptomology and potential adverse outcomes. Methods: This retrospective study evaluated a cohort of 150 pregnant individuals with a history of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy, observing for Long COVID symptoms and assessing for adverse outcomes. Of this cohort, 64% identified as Black and/or Latina, which provides a more diverse representation compared to previously published studies. Results: Within this cohort, 26.7% of individuals experienced at least one symptom of Long COVID; subcohorts, which were categorized based on presence or absence of Long COVID symptomology, presented with varying phenotypes. Pain, mental health dysfunction or psychological problems, and fatigue were the predominant symptoms documented for patients who averaged two Long COVID symptoms after at least 30 days following a COVID-19 diagnosis. Different adverse outcomes were higher in frequency among subcohorts, highlighting a need for continued study to explore the nuances of the impact of COVID-19 on this unique and vulnerable population. The most notable trends between subcohorts related to treatment patterns for acute COVID-19, vaccine status, and cesarean delivery rates. Conclusions: By providing a description of the documented health experience for a predominantly non-White cohort of individuals who were diagnosed with an acute SARS-CoV-2 during pregnancy, our study contributes to a foundation upon which future studies can build. Full article

In this study, we develop and analyze an extended SEIR-type compartmental model that incorporates vaccination and treatment to describe the dynamics of acute respiratory infection transmission. The model subdivides the infectious population into several symptomatic stages and an asymptomatic class, which allows the evaluation of control strategies across different levels of infection severity. The basic reproduction number ${\mathcal{R}}_0$ is analytically derived, and its sensitivity to vaccination and treatment rates is examined to assess the impact of public health interventions on epidemic control. Numerical simulations demonstrate that the joint implementation of vaccination and treatment can markedly reduce disease prevalence and lead to infection elimination when ${\mathcal{R}}_0<1$. The results emphasize the critical role of parameter interactions in determining disease persistence and show that combining both interventions produces stronger epidemiological effects than either one alone. Machine learning techniques, specifically Support Vector Machines (SVMs), are employed to classify epidemiological outcomes and support parameter estimation. The biological markers evaluated were not effective discriminants of infection status, underscoring the importance of integrating mechanistic modeling with data-driven approaches. This combined framework enhances the understanding of epidemic dynamics and improves the predictive capacity for decision-making in public health. Full article

Background: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections, including ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm disease, are among the most common neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) globally. This study evaluates the disease burden of STH in China from 1990 to 2021 and projects trends to 2035. Methods: Data from the Global Burden of Disease 2021 database were utilized to analyze the prevalence and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) of STH infections in China from 1990 to 2021. The estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) was calculated to assess trends over time, and a Bayesian age-period-cohort model was used to project the disease burden up to 2035. Results: From 1990 to 2021, the prevalence and DALYs of STH infections decreased significantly by 85.08% and 98.01% in China, respectively. The age-standardized prevalence rate (ASPR) of STH infections dropped from 34,073.24/10⁵ to 4981.01/10⁵ with an EAPC of −6.62% [95% confidence interval (CI): −7.40%, −5.83%], and the age-standardized DALY rate (ASDR) decreased from 1.77/10⁵ to 0.18/10⁵, with an EAPC of −14.05% (95% CI: −15.04%, −13.06%). Trichuriasis contributed to 78.85% of the total ASPR for STH, whereas hookworm disease accounted for 51.14% of STH’s ASDR. The highest disease burden due to STH peaked in the 5–9 years age group, with prevalence of 8030.05/10⁵ [95% uncertainty interval (UI): 5356.86/10⁵–11,662.62/10⁵] and DALYs rate of 2.99/10⁵ (95% UI: 1.56/10⁵−4.87/10⁵). The projected ASDR and ASPR of trichuriasis rose to 0.55/10⁵ and 5362.50/10⁵ by 2035. Conclusions: China has achieved remarkable reductions in the burden of STH infections over the past three decades. However, the predominance between the species has changed. The projected rebound in trichuriasis underscores the importance of sustained control efforts. To achieve the 2030 elimination target outlined in the WHO NTDs roadmap, it is crucial to integrate precision epidemiology with ongoing water, sanitation, and hygiene initiatives, targeted chemotherapy and health education. Full article

Background: Periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) and fracture-related infections (FRIs) are severe complications in orthopedic and trauma surgery. This study aimed to evaluate patient-reported health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in patients treated for PJI and FRI across multiple centers in Germany and Switzerland. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted in nine hospitals based on a project of the Section “Musculoskeletal Infections” of the German Society of Orthopaedics and Traumatology. Patients treated in 2021 were included to ensure a minimum 12-month follow-up. Diagnoses were verified using EBJIS and FRI consensus criteria. HRQoL was assessed via telephone interviews using the EQ-5D questionnaire and a visual analog scale (VAS). Reinfection rates and additional treatments were also recorded. Generalized estimating equations (GEEs) with age and sex as covariates and clustering on center were used to compare groups, with p-values adjusted for multiple testing using the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR). Results: In total, 384 patients were included (197 PJI, 187 FRI). Compared with the German reference population, both groups reported markedly reduced HRQoL across all EQ-5D domains. After adjustment, PJI patients had higher odds of reporting problems in self-care (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.13–2.54, FDR-p = 0.033), usual activities (OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.14–2.47, FDR-p = 0.033), and pain/discomfort (OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.31–4.21, FDR-p = 0.033) compared with FRI patients. VAS scores were similar between groups (PJI: 52.8, FRI: 55.5; p = 0.489). Reinfection was associated with significantly worse outcomes: in FRI, usual activities were more impaired (OR 2.41, 95% CI 1.56–3.72, FDR-p = 0.0004); in PJI, reinfection was linked to worse mobility (OR 2.14, 95% CI 1.55–2.95, FDR-p < 0.001), self-care (OR 3.70, 95% CI 2.49–5.49, FDR-p < 0.001), and usual activities (OR 3.92, 95% CI 2.76–5.57, FDR-p < 0.001). Conclusion: This multicenter study highlights the burden of PJI and FRI on patient-reported outcomes with a significant reduction in quality of life compared to the standard population. PJI patients, in particular, experienced greater impairments in mobility, self-care, and usual activities. Reinfection was associated with poorer outcomes, underscoring the importance of patient-centered rehabilitation in managing musculoskeletal infections. Full article

Background: Nephrectomy in patients with polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is typically arduous due to the considerable size of the kidneys. The laparoscopic method has arisen as a minimally invasive substitute for open surgery. Nonetheless, conventional laparoscopic methods may be inadequate for tackling the distinct anatomical complexities of a large polycystic kidney. This study presents a unique method, “the hilum first technique”, specifically designed for nephrectomy in patients with PKD, emphasizing its safety and efficacy in addressing this intricate condition. Methods: A retrospective analysis of patients with PKD who underwent minimally invasive nephrectomy using “the hilum first technique” at our hospital between 2020 and 2025. Data on operative time, blood loss, conversion rates, hospital stay, and outcomes were analyzed to evaluate this technique’s safety and efficacy. Results: Minimally invasive nephrectomy using the “hilum first technique” was successfully performed in 16 cases; the mean age of patients was 56.3 years. Two of which were robot-assisted, in which one of them, a bilateral nephrectomy was done, with no conversions to open surgery, even for huge kidneys. The mean operative time was 159.6 min, with an estimated blood loss of 50 mL. Postoperatively, the median duration of hospital stay was 4 days (range: 3–10 days), and 75% of patients experienced no complications. Three patients (18.7%) were readmitted within 30 days due to surgical site infection, subcutaneous hematoma, and pneumonia. Seven patients (43.7%) underwent kidney transplantation within a median duration of 132 days post-nephrectomy. Conclusions: This retrospective study, although limited by a small sample size, demonstrated significant promise as a novel strategy for tackling the challenges of huge polycystic kidneys. The findings suggest its feasibility and safety, although further validation is required. Full article

Background: Tourists returning home and visitors from abroad often carry antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria. Many of these resistant bacteria are acquired from, or were spread via, the environment (especially water). Understanding the impact from acquiring resistant bacteria via tourism upon global antimicrobial resistance is limited. Methods: Traveller transmission of AMR bacteria can be estimated from combining the numbers of travellers with AMR bacteria rates in different regions and the prevalence of communicable diseases. We used resistance data (WHO and contemporary publications) to measure the prevalence of E.coli resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. The study uses data from 2019, the year with the most complete dataset that also predates disruptions to travel caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. We then used the global burden of disease study and travel data from the World Travel and Tourism to create regional and country level indices measuring the impact of AMR bacteria for 241 countries. Estimates of global travel patterns were obtained using a gravity-style trip distribution model. Findings: Regions with the highest impact of AMR bacteria from returning travellers were Northern Europe and Western Europe. The region with the highest impact of AMR bacteria from visiting travellers was the Caribbean where small island countries receive large numbers of visitors. For countries/administrative regions with populations greater than 5 million, the AMR bacterial travel impacts measured in decreasing risk order from the highest were Hong Kong, Denmark, New Zealand, Hungary, Norway and Sweden. Interpretation: For some countries the incidence of AMR infection among both visitors and returning travellers is much higher than in the domestic population. This impact and how these bacteria are acquired from the environment, must be factored into public health policies for containing global spread of AMR bacteria and as part of a One Health approach. Full article

Background: According to a WHO global hepatitis report, the global prevalence of hepatitis B in 2022 was 254 million and for hepatitis C it was 50 million. The estimated number of people newly infected by viral hepatitis declined from 3 million in 2019 to 2.2 million in 2022. Of these, 1.2 million are hepatitis B infections and nearly 1.0 million are hepatitis C infections. Regarding vertical transmission, it is estimated that 4 to 5 million children are infected worldwide every year from HBV-positive mothers. The United States declared that hepatitis C is the commonest chronic blood-borne infection, with an increase in HCV birth infections from 1.8 to 4.7 per 1000 births. Objectives: This systematic review focuses on highlighting the most suitable screening methods and maternal interventions to prevent HBV/HCV mother-to-child transmission, as well as the appropriate prophylactic strategies for newborns. Materials and methods: We searched a medical database (PubMed) to find papers regarding mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B and C. Inclusion criteria were human-based studies, studies with large cohorts of subjects, studies conducted in different parts of the globe and position papers from various international associations. Exclusion criteria were non-human-based studies and non-English publications. To present and synthesize results we made use of thematic analysis and narrative synthesis. Results: We included 103 publications. For hepatitis B, the combination of maternal antiviral therapy during pregnancy and timely administration of HBV vaccine alongside HBIG to the newborn has proven to be highly effective in lowering transmission rates. Hepatitis C vertical transmission lacks an effective vaccine or immuno-prophylaxis, turning prevention strategies into a continuous battle. Conclusions: Vertical transmission of hepatitis B and C continues to be a major contributor to the global burden of chronic viral hepatitis. Strengthening prenatal care programs, improving access to diagnostic and therapeutic resources and enhancing public health policies are essential to curb vertical transmission of both hepatitis B and C. Full article

Background/Objectives: Calcineurin inhibitors (CNI) contribute to renal dysfunction post-transplant. Belatacept is a renal sparing immunosuppressive agent. We sought to determine if the use of belatacept, as an alternative to a CNI-based maintenance immunosuppressive regimen ameliorates the effects of CNI-related nephrotoxicity in lung transplant recipients, while preserving graft function. Methods: Retrospective case series of adult lung transplant recipients (LTR) converted to belatacept with CNI elimination between 2020 and 2023. Primary outcomes were estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and pulmonary function testing. Secondary outcomes included incidence of rejection, mortality, donor specific antibody (DSA), chronic lung allograft dysfunction, infection, malignancies, and drug discontinuation. Results: Five LTR converted to belatacept with a median follow up of 3.49 years (IQR 16.4). eGFR improved with a median change of +18 mL/min/1.73 m² (IQR 6–34) at 12 months, this was sustained at last-follow-up (+19 mL/min/1.73 m² (IQR 6–34)). Force expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) declined from baseline to last follow-up (median change −0.53 L). At a median of 199 days post-conversion (IQR 108–453), belatacept was discontinued in 4/5 (80%) LTR, primarily due to graft dysfunction (3/4), and CNI therapy resumed. No LTR developed CLAD, DSA, malignancy, or died on belatacept. Infection (primarily pulmonary bacterial or fungal) occurred in all LTR on belatacept. Conclusions: Belatacept with complete CNI elimination in LTR resulted in a sustained improvement in renal function in this series but was accompanied by a high discontinuation rate due to worsening graft function. The risks to the graft associated with belatacept and calcineurin inhibitor elimination outweigh any potential renal benefits. Full article

Dirofilariosis, a parasitic disease caused by nematodes of the genus Dirofilaria, primarily affects dogs but can also infect other carnivores and, more rarely, humans. In Europe, the most commonly involved species are D. immitis and D. repens, transmitted through the bites of mosquito vectors. This study, conducted in Tulcea County between April and October 2024, aimed to determine the prevalence of D. immitis and D. repens in mosquitoes. A total of 1507 mosquitoes were collected and grouped into 76 pools, and subsequently molecular analysis was carried out using qPCR. The estimated infection rate (EIR) was calculated using statistical methods available in the ‘binGroup’ package in R, which allow the determination of the point estimate and confidence interval (CI) for a single binomial proportion in group testing. The study revealed a high infection rate with D. immitis (48%), while D. repens was identified in only two pools. The species with the highest vector potential was Anopheles maculipennis (PTP = 75%, EIR = 0.1168 with both Dirofilaria species), followed by Aedes vexans. Notably, Aedes albopictus was identified for the first time in Tulcea, and all individuals were positive for D. immitis. Simulations of local thermal conditions using the proposed model show that the favorable time window for mosquitoes will increase until 2100. Our results indicate an established and active transmission cycle of D. immitis in the region, a situation projected to intensify with climate change requiring urgent monitoring. Full article

Worldwide, polymicrobial infections (PMIs) account for an estimated 20–50% of severe clinical infection cases, with biofilm-associated and device-related infections reaching 60–80% in hospitalized patients. This review discusses the clinical burden of major infections in which PMIs are almost inevitable, such as diabetic foot infections, intra-abdominal infections, pneumonia, and biofilm-associated device infections. Globally, the PMI landscape is diverse; however, the Indian subcontinent is a PMI hotspot where high comorbidities, endemic antimicrobial resistance, and underdeveloped diagnostic capacity elevate the risks of poor outcomes. Existing diagnostic like culture-based methods, PCR panels, sequencing, and biomarker-based assays are constrained by sensitivity, turnaround times (TATs), and high costs. Vulnerable populations, particularly neonates, the elderly, immunocompromised patients, and socioeconomically marginalized groups, show case-fatality rates 2-fold higher than monomicrobial infections in similar settings. Emerging diagnostic solutions include CRISPR-based multiplex assays, artificial intelligence-based metagenomic platforms, and sensitive biosensors with point-of-care applicability. These technologies show potential in reducing the TAT (<2 h) with high accuracy (>95%). However, their translation to real-world settings depends critically on affordability, integration into healthcare pathways, and supportive policy. This will provide equitable diagnostic access, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Full article

Background: Optimal energy and protein delivery during the early phase of severe trauma remains unclear. Observational studies frequently contradict the findings of randomized controlled trials, raising concerns about confounding factors. The aim of this study is to assess nutritional adequacy and daily variability in the energy gaps and its impact on outcomes using innovative statistical methods. Methods: Prospective observational study enrolled severely injured patients in the ICU at the Level 1 trauma center between October 2023 to April 2025. To describe the evolution of calorie and protein deficits during the first 10-day ICU stay, we utilized a linear mixed-effects model to estimate each patient’s individual energy gap trajectory. Results: 286 patients were analyzed. Median APACHE II and ISS score was 16.0 (12.0–20.0) and 22.0 (18.0–27.0), respectively. Mortality rate was 35.3%. Patients received 68.3% of prescribed calories and 76.8% of proteins. Admission energy deficit, rate of caloric intake, and their interaction are associated with ICU mortality. Increased day-to-day energy variability was associated with longer duration of mechanical ventilation (HR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.31–0.99; p = 0.047). Patients who achieved better caloric (HR = 0.68, 95% CI: 0.48–0.98, p = 0.036) and protein (HR = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.09–0.96, p = 0.043) nutrition had a lower hazard of developing nosocomial infection. Conclusions: This study supports the 2023 ESPEN guidelines, showing that achieving the recommended energy and protein intake during the early phase of severe trauma is linked to lower mortality rates, shorter mechanical ventilation time, and reduced risk of nosocomial infections. Full article

Background: Bloodstream infections (BSIs) complicate COVID-19 inpatients, increasing morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated prevalence, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), risk factors, and outcomes of BSIs in RT-PCR-confirmed COVID-19 cases. Methods: We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and MDPI journals (January 2020–August 2025) following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Twenty-two observational studies (~123,500 patients, ~602,000 blood cultures) were included: 10 prospective and 12 retrospective. Random-effects models estimated pooled prevalence, odds ratios (ORs), and mean differences, with subgroup analyses (ICU, non-ICU, pediatric) and meta-regression.Results: Pooled BSI prevalence was 8.2% (95% CI: 5.7–11.0; I² = 50%). Subgroup prevalence was higher in ICU (12.5%) than non-ICU (5.2%) populations. Pediatric cohorts (n = 3) showed a prevalence of 10.8%. Gram-negative pathogens predominated (61%), particularly Klebsiella pneumoniae (26%) and Acinetobacter baumannii (21%). AMR rates were 36% for MRSA and 31% for ESBL-producing Enterobacterales. Risk factors included mechanical ventilation (OR: 2.6), immunosuppression (OR: 2.3), and corticosteroid use (OR: 2.4). BSIs were associated with increased mortality (OR: 2.6), prolonged hospitalization (+6.8 days), and higher ICU admission (OR: 3.1).Conclusions: BSIs, largely driven by multidrug-resistant pathogens, substantially worsen COVID-19 outcomes. Variability in diagnostic criteria (CDC vs. ECDC) and reliance on retrospective designs are limitations, though moderate heterogeneity (I² = 50%) enhances generalizability across diverse populations. Strengthened infection prevention and antimicrobial stewardship are urgently required. Full article

Background: Enterobiasis, caused by Enterobius vermicularis, is recognized as a common intestinal helminthiasis worldwide. Despite multiple surveys in Thailand, no pooled synthesis at the country level has been carried out to evaluate prevalence patterns, temporal trends, or vulnerable groups. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis were undertaken to provide an updated and comprehensive estimate of the prevalence of E. vermicularis in Thailand and to identify high-risk populations for targeted interventions. Methods: The systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (PROSPERO: CRD420251053217). Studies reporting E. vermicularis infection in Thailand were systematically searched in international and Thai databases. Pooled prevalence and odds ratios (ORs) were calculated using random-effects models. Subgroup analyses and meta-regression were performed according to year, region, age, population type, and diagnostic method. Results: A total of 56 studies, including 52,765 participants, were analyzed. The overall pooled prevalence was estimated at 3.6% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.1–5.9%), with a decline observed in the subgroup analysis by publication year, from 4.75% in 2000–2009 to 1.15% in 2020–2023. The highest prevalence was reported in Central Thailand (7.93%). High infection rates were found among immigrant children (25.2%), hilltribe children (19.9%), Karen students (15.5%), and children in orphanages (11.4%). A markedly higher prevalence was detected by the Scotch tape method compared with direct smear/concentration (12.9% vs. 0.33%). No significant difference in infection risk was observed between males and females (OR = 1.03, p = 0.65). Conclusions: The pooled prevalence of E. vermicularis in Thailand was estimated at 3.6%, but this figure should be interpreted with caution due to high heterogeneity across studies. More meaningful insights were identified in subgroup analyses, which revealed a temporal decline in prevalence, geographic clustering in Central Thailand, and disproportionately high infection rates among socioeconomically disadvantaged child populations. No statistically significant association was found between gender and risk of infection. These patterns underscore the need for targeted screening, deworming, and hygiene interventions, along with the standardized use of the Scotch tape technique for accurate surveillance and comparability of future studies. Full article

Background and Objectives: Performance of robot-assisted total knee arthroplasty (TKA) procedures has continued to increase in popularity. However, tourniquet use is necessary for longer periods of time in robot-assisted TKA than conventional manual TKA because the robot-assisted procedure requires an additional registration process. The use of tourniquets for long periods increases the risk of hidden blood loss and ischemic soft tissue injury in the lower extremity. The purpose of this study was to compare the value of performing robot-assisted TKA without the use of a tourniquet to that of performing this surgery with the use of a tourniquet. Parameters we assessed were blood loss, degree of postoperative thigh and knee pain, and occurrence of early post-operative complications. Materials and Methods: Data from 100 consecutive patients who underwent primary unilateral robot-assisted TKA between July 2024 and July 2025 were included in this study’s analyses. Patients were divided into three groups chronologically. The first 29 patients comprised group 1, the early tourniquet group; the next 30 patients were assigned to group 2, the no tourniquet group; and group 3 was the late tourniquet group and comprised the remaining 41 subjects. However, because allocation was chronological rather than randomized, the outcomes of later groups may partly reflect the surgeon’s accumulated experience (learning curve), which should be considered when interpreting the results. The primary outcome measure was estimated blood loss (EBL). The secondary outcome measures included transfusion rate, visual analog scale (VAS) pain scores for the knee and thigh on the third postoperative day, readmission rate due to surgical complications, superficial and deep infection rate, length of operation, and length of tourniquet use. Results: Group 2 participants, the no tourniquet participants, experienced significantly greater EBL on postoperative days (PODs) 1, 2, and 3 compared to the subjects assigned to groups 1 and 3 (p = 0.003, p < 0.001, and p = 0.005, respectively). However, there were no significant differences in transfusion rates (p = 0.290) among the 3 groups. VAS scores for knee and thigh pain were also not significantly different among the three groups (all p-values > 0.05). Three patients in group 1 (10.3%), one patient in group 2 (3.3%), and one patient in group 3 (2.4%) were readmitted for complications related to wound healing (p = 0.289). Additionally, two patients in group 1 developed superficial wound infections from which the causative bacteria were cultured. No infections were observed in the other groups (p = 0.082), however. Two patients in group 1 and two patients in group 2 experienced symptomatic deep vein thrombosis (DVT) (p = 0.235). No group 3 patients experienced DVT, and only one patient in group 2 was confirmed with DVT using an enhanced CT scan (p = 0.308). Group 3 patients had shorter lengths of surgery (p < 0.001) than group 1 and 2 patients and had shorter periods of tourniquet use (p = 0.034) than group 1 patients. Conclusions: Tourniquet non-use in robot-assisted TKA surgeries was associated with greater EBL in acute postoperative periods, but this finding was not accompanied by any change in transfusion rate. Tourniquet non-use was not clinically beneficial for reducing immediate postoperative thigh and knee pain or reducing the prevalence of early post-operative complications. Tourniquet use in robot-assisted TKA may be beneficial because of the advantages its use provides in maintaining a clear surgical field and in facilitating the cementing process. Full article

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains a critical public health concern globally, including in Bangladesh. In this study, we employed a mathematical modeling framework to analyze the national dynamics of HCV infections and associated mortality in Bangladesh. Utilizing surveillance data from the Directorate General of Health Services, we examined the epidemiological trajectory of HCV and assessed the impact of various intervention strategies. The Next Generation Matrix approach was employed to derive basic reproduction numbers, and the model was calibrated with observed HCV incidence data to estimate some model parameter values. We conducted sensitivity analysis to assess how variations in model parameters affect HCV prevalence, revealing that transmission rates of both drug-susceptible and drug-resistant strains have the greatest impact. Additionally, bifurcation analysis was performed to examine parameter thresholds and assess the stability of the system. We then used the model to estimate the impacts of various intervention policies on reducing HCV cases and deaths. Among single interventions, increased effective treatment for drug-susceptible cases proved to be the most rapid and effective strategy for reducing the total number of both drug-susceptible and drug-resistant HCV cases, as well as mortality. Additionally, our results imply that combining interventions increases their overall effectiveness, achieving substantial reductions in cases and deaths with relatively modest investment. However, complete eradication of HCV in Bangladesh would require significantly greater resources. Full article