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Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is a large but underutilized resource for sustainable concrete production; however, its use in structural applications is limited by concerns regarding reduced workability and durability. This study investigates the interactions between RAP and silica fume (SF) as well as superplasticizer (SP), and identifies optimal RAP concrete mixtures through the individual incorporation of SF and SP to enhance workability, durability-related indicators, water absorption, and density. RAP replaced 0–100% of coarse aggregate, SF was added at 0–21%, and SP at 0–2.1%, with a fixed water–cement ratio of 0.48. Six mix categories were prepared: control, RAP, SF, SP, RAP–SF, and RAP–SP. SF and SP were examined separately to isolate their interactions with RAP before they were combined with other cementitious materials. RAP increased slump via a lubricating effect but increased water absorption, with the density stabilizing at 50% RAP and peaking at 75% RAP due to improved particle packing. Although SF’s influence was limited by the fixed w/c ratio, in moderate-to-high (50–100%) RAP mixes it achieved very low water absorption (≤1.1%) and increased density (up to 7.6%), confirming its pore-refinement effect. SP achieved the greatest workability gains (up to 58% slump increase) at high RAP levels but contributed less to durability, highlighting SF’s stronger pore-refinement role. Most RAP–SF and RAP–SP mixes satisfied severe-environment durability limits, confirming their potential for sustainable, high-performance RAP concrete without compromising structural reliability. Full article

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11 pages, 1827 KB

Open AccessArticle

Patterned Metal Flexible Films as a Strain Sensor with Good Durability and Anti-Corrosion Property

by Xu Zheng, Qing Wang, Wenming Cao, Wenchao Li, Rui Zhang, Ping Xiang and Yijia Liu

Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040464 (registering DOI) - 11 Apr 2026

Abstract

To prevent corrosion in humid environments and electrical failure under loads, we developed a highly durable corrosion-resistant flexible strain sensor with a patterned sandwich structure. The effects of film dimensions and ambient temperature on the sensor’s electrical conductivity were investigated separately. The patterned flexible strain sensor demonstrated exceptional durability, maintaining stability after multiple tensile cycles and large deformations. The PDMS coating effectively protected the conductive layer from external environmental factors. Experimental results revealed that the sensor could efficiently block the corrosive effects of humid environments. Furthermore, when applied to real-time micro-strain detection in steel plate tensile tests, the relationship between ΔR/R₀ and strain exhibited high linearity and sensitivity. The conductive film shows excellent durability and corrosion resistance, demonstrating significant application potential as a flexible strain sensor in humid conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Thin-Films: Design, Fabrication and Applications, Third Edition)

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15 pages, 1264 KB

Open AccessArticle

ES2-LeafSeg: Lightweight State Space Modeling-Driven Agricultural Leaf Segmentation

by Hao Wang, Zhiyang Li, Pengsen Zhao and Jinlong Yu

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 3745; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16083745 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

Agricultural robots and unmanned farmland management require real-time and precise parsing of crop leaves at the edge to support variable application of pesticides, seedling condition monitoring, and phenotypic analysis. However, the field environment features drastic changes in light, leaf occlusion, and interference from background weeds, which can cause semantic fragmentation and boundary artifacts in lightweight models. This paper presents ES2-LeafSeg, a lightweight framework for leaf semantic segmentation tailored for edge deployment. The method employs EfficientNetV2 as the backbone encoder and introduces the State Space Semantic Enhancement Module (S2FEM) on skip connection features, modeling long-range dependencies and suppressing local texture noise through SSM pooling in row and column directions. Meanwhile, a cross-scale decoder (CSD) and a global context transformation (GCT) are designed to achieve multi-scale semantic fusion and boundary refinement. On the three-class segmentation task of the SoyCotton dataset, ES2-LeafSeg achieved mIoU of 0.817, mDice of 0.869, Fβw of 0.925, and MAE of 0.011, outperforming multiple classic and recent baselines while maintaining 23.67 M parameters and 49.62 FPS. Ablation experiments further verified the complementary contributions of S2FEM and GCT to regional consistency and boundary quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Computing and Artificial Intelligence)

20 pages, 2078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Methodology for Static Pressure Measurement Under Confined Spatial Conditions in the Low-Pressure Range

by Pavla Šabacká, Jiří Maxa, Michal Bílek, Robert Bayer, Tomáš Binar, Petr Bača, Vojtěch Hlavička, Jiří Čupera, Jiří Votava, Vojtěch Kumbár and Lenka Dobšáková

Sensors 2026, 26(8), 2354; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26082354 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

This paper presents a methodology enabling the use of a Pitot probe for static pressure measurement in supersonic flow under severely confined spatial conditions where standard design guidelines cannot be satisfied. In particular, the recommended placement of a static pressure tapping at a distance of 10–20 tube diameters is not feasible; the proposed approach allows for the tapping to be located immediately downstream of the static tube cone. The methodology combines theoretical analysis, experimental measurements, and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. Experiments were performed using appropriately selected pressure sensors, while detailed simulations in Ansys Fluent (Ansys 2024 R2) included both a high-fidelity probe model and free-stream flow analysis. By comparing experimental and numerical results, a correction coefficient was established based on the free-stream dynamic pressure obtained from CFD. This enables the accurate estimation of static pressure even in non-ideal probe configurations. The measurement error did not exceed 20%, while in most cases, very good agreement between experimental and CFD results was achieved. The main contribution of this paper is the validated methodology, which extends the applicability of Pitot probes to geometrically constrained environments where conventional static pressure measurement techniques cannot be implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)

22 pages, 4866 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Electrochemical Oxidation in H₂SO₄ and H₃PO₄ on the Electrochemical Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V ELI Alloy in Artificial Biological Media Mimicking Physiological and Pathological Environments

by Lidia Benea, Nicoleta Bogatu, Veaceslav Neaga and Elena Roxana Axente

Materials 2026, 19(8), 1530; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19081530 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

This research investigates the effects of electrochemical oxidation on surface properties and corrosion performance of the Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy intended for biomedical applications. Electrochemical anodization is performed in 1 M H₂SO₄ and 1 M H₃PO₄ electrolytes at applied potentials of 200, 250, and 275 V for 1 min. Morphological characteristics and chemical constitution of the oxide films are investigated by SEM-EDS analysis, while surface roughness, wettability, and microhardness are evaluated using profilometry, contact angle measurements, and Vickers microhardness testing. Electrochemical behavior is assessed by monitoring free potential (OCP) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in Ringer solution and Ringer solution containing 40 g/L hydrogen peroxide. Among the investigated conditions, anodization at 200 V for 1 min provides the most favorable surface morphology, producing well-defined and uniformly distributed nanopores while maintaining the structural stability of the oxide layer. Oxidation in 1 M H₂SO₄ leads to a more homogeneous nanoporous structure, higher surface roughness, improved hydrophilicity, and increased microhardness compared to 1 M H₃PO₄ treatment. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis reveals superior corrosion resistance for all oxidized samples in comparison with the untreated alloy. The oxide layers obtained in sulfuric acid exhibit the highest polarization resistance and electrochemical stability in simulated physiological environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Coatings for Wear and Corrosion Applications (Second Edition))

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26 pages, 3869 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual AI-Informed Institutional Learning Analytics: Extending the TAM to Strengthen Inclusive Digital Justice

by Soledad Zabala, José Javier Galán Hernández, Alberto Garcés Jiménez, José Manuel Gómez Pulido, Susana Ester Medina and María Belén Morales Cevallos

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 3737; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16083737 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

This study examines institutional processes in digital justice through a mixed conceptual approach that integrates bibliometric analysis and technology-adoption modeling, incorporating artificial intelligence (AI) as a projected component rather than an implemented system. A corpus of approximately 200 Scopus-indexed documents (2003–2024) was analyzed, identifying five dominant thematic clusters: advanced technologies, institutional justice, digital government, judicial information management, and digital criminal justice. The results reveal persistent gaps in the literature, particularly in rural and underserved communities, where connectivity barriers and the limited application of adoption models hinder inclusive digital transformation. As an institutional contribution, the study presents the conceptual design of the digital solution “Travel Permits—Accessible Justice”, developed under a Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) and projected for future integration with AI-supported components to automate judicial authorizations through biometric validation, electronic signatures, and digital delivery. To evaluate its potential acceptance, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is analytically adapted and extended to the community-based judicial context, framing institutional learning processes as a prospective form of learning analytics focused on user interaction, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and behavioral intention. Taken together, the integration of bibliometric evidence with an extended TAM, along with the projected incorporation of AI-supported institutional learning processes, offers a coherent foundation for future studies on inclusive digital innovation in justice environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Educational Data Mining and Learning Analytics)

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13 pages, 3427 KB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Ti-Enhanced Plasma Nitriding (PNTi)/Diamond-like Carbon (DLC) Composite Coating with Strong Adhesion Strength and Excellent Wear Resistance

by Longchen Zhao, Jiqiang Wu, Lin Qi, Jing Hu, Xulong An, Xilang Liu, Dandan Wang, Xiangkui Liu and Kunxia Wei

Coatings 2026, 16(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings16040457 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

To improve the adhesion and tribological performance of diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings on steel substrate, a Ti-enhanced plasma nitriding (PNTi) layer was formed on the surface of 38CrMoAl steel, followed by deposition of a Cr-based interlayer (mainly CrN) and then a W interlayer. Finally, a DLC coating was deposited, resulting in a novel PNTi/DLC coating. For comparison, a conventional PN/DLC coating was prepared under the same processing conditions. Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, hardness tests, and tribological experiments were performed to systematically investigate the effect of TiN-enriched PNTi supporting layer on the performances of the PNTi/DLC composite coating. The results show that comparing with PN/DLC composite coating, the critical load (Lc₂) of the PNTi/DLC coating was increased from 28.89 N to 43.25 N—about a 50% enhancement. The microhardness was increased from 2650 HV_0.05 to 4400 HV_0.05 (corresponding to 28.2 GPa to 44.1 GPa). The friction coefficient was decreased from 0.28 to 0.11, about a 60% reduction, and the wear rate declined more than 40%, from 4.81 × 10⁻⁶ to 2.90 × 10⁻⁶ mm³·N⁻¹·m⁻¹. The introduction of Ti promoted the in situ formation of TiN phase in the nitrided layer, which significantly improved the compactness of the nitrided layer and the adhesion at the film–substrate interface. Consequently, the PNTi/DLC composite coating exhibited excellent wear resistance and friction stability under high-load and severe tribological conditions. This study provides a promising perspective for engineering applications of steel-based DLC coatings in harsh service environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancement in Heat Treatment and Surface Modification for Metals, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 49031 KB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Change Reshapes Thermal Suitability for Dairy Cattle in Jiangsu Province (1961–2020)

by Guangyi Yang, Fei Liu, Guangqin Zhu, Qiong Liu, Chao Wang, Dong Li, Zhongrui Guo and Hongmei Zhao

Animals 2026, 16(8), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16081166 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

Understanding how climate change alters the thermal environment experienced by dairy cattle is critical for guiding adaptation in rapidly warming regions. Using meteorological data from 1961 to 2020, this study quantified long-term trends in temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and wind speed across Jiangsu Province, China, and assessed their impacts on thermal stress using a temperature–humidity index (THI). The results reveal pronounced spatial heterogeneity in climatic change, with accelerated warming in southern and coastal prefectures, and continued winter cold stress in the northern plain. Over the past six decades, the annual number of heat-stress days (THI > 72) increased substantially and expanded northward, while cold-stress days (THI ≤ 38) declined but remained non-negligible in northern Jiangsu. Although the total number of thermally comfortable days changed little at the provincial scale, their seasonal distribution became increasingly compressed between longer summer heat-stress periods and shorter winter cold-stress windows, indicating a narrowing of the effective comfort range for dairy cattle. To link historical analysis with operational applications, a forecasting platform was developed to generate short-term predictions of THI and associated meteorological conditions, enabling spatially explicit visualization and early identification of periods with elevated thermal risk. Overall, these findings demonstrate an intensification and redistribution of thermal stress in Jiangsu, while also illustrating a transferable climate-risk mechanism relevant to other warming, humid dairy regions worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal System and Management)

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17 pages, 55937 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Applicability of Machine Learning in Behavioural Monitoring of the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Zoos

by Amalie M. Worup, Anne S. Sonne, Jeppe Kudahl, Johanne H. Jacobsen, Sussie Pagh, Thea L. Faddersbøll and Cino Pertoldi

Animals 2026, 16(8), 1165; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16081165 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

Welfare assessment for the endangered red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in captivity requires systematic behaviour monitoring, yet traditional direct observation is often limited by observer subjectivity and time constraints. This study evaluates the feasibility of employing machine learning (ML) to automate behavioural monitoring of a red panda in a complex, mixed-species enclosure at Aalborg Zoo, Denmark. Using video data from cameras in the enclosure of the red panda, and the ML model LabGym for animal detection and behavioural categorisation, models were trained to analyse activity patterns of the red panda. The results demonstrate that, while the behaviour categorizer is a promising tool with high classification confidence, the overall system effectiveness is currently limited by the object detector’s performance in a naturalistic environment. Challenges such as environmental obstructions (e.g., rocks, foliage, and trees) and the animal’s camouflage contributed to a significant amount of unclassified time, which may affect the overall assessment of behavioural distribution. We conclude that, while ML holds potential for non-invasive behaviour monitoring, its application in complex zoo settings requires improved detection capabilities to be fully reliable. Future iterations of this system could be enhanced by complementing standard object detection with pose estimation frameworks. Implementing alternative labelling strategies or background subtraction methods could additionally mitigate the detection challenges posed by environmental obstruction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence as a Useful Tool in Behavioural Studies)

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24 pages, 2466 KB

Open AccessArticle

Classification of Symmetric Four-Body Dziobek Central Configurations and Application to the Earth–Moon System

by Zalán Czirják, Bálint Érdi and Emese Forgács-Dajka

Universe 2026, 12(4), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe12040112 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

Central configurations are fundamental equilibrium solutions of the Newtonian n-body problem and play a key role in understanding the structure and dynamics of gravitational systems. However, the classification and enumeration of such configurations remain incomplete in the four-body case, particularly for symmetric configurations. In this work, we develop a framework for determining and classifying symmetric four-body Dziobek configurations. The method allows the explicit determination of the number of admissible configurations directly from the mass parameters, without requiring prior knowledge of their geometric structure. Combined with previously established semi-analytical relations, this approach provides a systematic characterization of symmetric configurations in terms of mass ratios. As a physically relevant application, we apply the framework to the Earth–Moon system and determine the possible symmetric four-body central configurations involving Earth- and Moon-mass bodies and an additional object of arbitrary mass. We identify both isolated configurations and continuous families of equilibrium solutions, extending the concept of libration points to the four-body problem. The presented semi-analytical approach contributes to the understanding of equilibrium structures in multi-body gravitational systems and provides a foundation for further studies in celestial mechanics, planetary dynamics, and spacecraft motion in complex gravitational environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Planetary Sciences)

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15 pages, 3353 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Wearable Electrochemical Sensing Platform for Rapid Detection of Organophosphorus Pesticides: A Flexible Biosensor Based on Screen-Printed Electrodes and Organophosphorus Hydrolase

by Zhenxuan Liu, Huimin Zhu, Kaijie Yang, Zhuoliang Liu, Xuheng Yang, Yingying Ze, Fang Wang, Shiyin Zhao, Fangfang Liu, Bingxu Chen, Chenxi Zhang, Jianfang Wang, Cheng-An Tao and Zhiyan Chen

Sensors 2026, 26(8), 2348; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26082348 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

The rapid detection of organophosphorus (OP) compounds is crucial for safeguarding human health and ensuring food safety. This study presents a novel wearable electrochemical biosensor that integrates miniaturized screen-printed electrodes with wearable devices to achieve real-time, on-site OP detection. The biosensor was fabricated by constructing a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) on a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) substrate, sequentially modified with graphene (GR), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH), and finally encapsulated with Nafion. This SPCE/GR/AuNPs/OPH/Nafion configuration yields a highly flexible and portable device. The detection principle relies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of methyl paraoxon (MPOX) by OPH, generating p-nitrophenol (PNP), which is quantitatively measured via square wave voltammetry (SWV). The sensor exhibits a broad linear detection range (30–400 μM) with a strong linear correlation (R² = 0.995) and a low detection limit (0.321 μM). It demonstrates excellent selectivity against common interfering substances, including urea, sucrose, and various metal ions. Application to real-world samples such as cabbage and tap water yielded high recoveries (107.2% for cabbage and 101.2% for tap water), with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 8%. Furthermore, the biosensor maintains robust flexibility and mechanical resilience, with less than 5% signal loss after 100 bending cycles, confirming its suitability for wearable applications and reliable operation under mechanical stress. This innovative, flexible electrochemical biosensor provides a powerful and reliable platform for rapid OP detection, particularly in complex testing environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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13 pages, 3211 KB

Open AccessArticle

Termite: An Open-Source Grasshopper Plugin for Parametric Slicing in Architectural Clay 3D Printing

by Julian Jauk, Lukas Gosch, Hana Vašatko and Milena Stavric

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2026, 10(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp10040128 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

Over the last decade, 3D printing of clay has gained attention in architecture. Yet most slicing software is designed for thermoplastics with nozzle sizes between 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Clay printing, using larger nozzles (1–30 mm), requires precise control over path arrangement, material flow, and shrinkage—capabilities not sufficiently addressed by conventional software. This paper introduces Termite, an open-source software plugin for Rhinoceros 3D Grasshopper designed specifically for Liquid Deposition Modeling (LDM) 3D printing. The novelty of this work lies in embedding slicing logic directly into a parametric design environment, enabling explicit and flexible control of printing paths tailored to the rheological behavior of clay. The plugin supports designing, simulating, optimizing, and exporting machine data within a unified workflow. In contrast to conventional slicers, it allows variable printing parameters within a single print job, controlled inrun speeds for smoother path starts, adapted material flow at path crossings, and extrusion flattening at path ends to enhance adhesion and precision. The software was evaluated through multiple architectural-scale case studies and student-based design experiments. Results demonstrate that integrating slicing operations into parametric design workflows enables new fabrication strategies and expands accessibility of clay 3D printing for architectural applications. Full article

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25 pages, 3389 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimisation-Based Tuning of a Triple-Loop Vehicle Controller to Mimic Professional Driver Performance in a DiL Simulator

by Vincenzo Palermo, Marco Gabiccini, Eugeniu Grabovic, Massimo Guiggiani, Matteo Pergoli and Luca Bergianti

Vehicles 2026, 8(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles8040087 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

This paper presents a simulation-based methodology for automated tuning of a triple-loop controller (steering, throttle, and braking) for a Dallara single-seater race car. The approach targets on-track driving at handling limits, where strong nonlinearities and coupled dynamics dominate, treating the vehicle as a black box. Five controller gains are optimized via derivative-free pattern search, using reference trajectories from a professional driver in a Driver-in-the-Loop (DiL) simulator. Human-likeness is promoted by penalty terms on state and control trajectories while maximizing distance over a fixed horizon as a proxy for lap-time reduction. The application uses a high-fidelity multibody vehicle model with realistic tire, suspension, and actuator dynamics in the DiL environment, rather than simplified single-track representations. Contributions are: (i) effective application of derivative-free optimization to complex, high-dimensional, black-box vehicle systems; and (ii) a systematic, reproducible procedure for automatic tuning of controller parameters with a predetermined architecture to reproduce a professional driver’s performance and embed human-likeness. Optimization required approximately 2.4 h. Results show that the optimized controller improves track coverage by 63.6 m (1.1% increase) compared to manual tuning while maintaining a realistic driving style, offering a more systematic and reliable solution than manual, trial-and-error calibration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Control Strategies for Vehicle Dynamics and Aerodynamics)

31 pages, 6235 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Spatiotemporal Cluster Analysis and Dynamic Evaluation Model for the Rock Mass Instability Risk During Deep Mining of Metal Mine

by Yuting Bian, Wei Zhu, Fang Yan and Xiaofeng Huang

Mathematics 2026, 14(8), 1261; https://doi.org/10.3390/math14081261 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

With the increasing depth of mining operations, accurate identification and assessment of rock mass instability risks are crucial for ensuring mine safety. This study proposes an integrated framework combining the Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (HDBSCAN), fuzzy comprehensive evaluation (FCE) and kernel density estimation (KDE) for the identification and dynamic assessment of high-risk zones in deep mining. Using microseismic monitoring data from a lead–zinc mine in Northwest China (January–June 2023), the HDBSCAN algorithm adaptively identified 86 high-density clusters from 11,638 events. The weights of five evaluation indicators (moment magnitude, apparent stress, stress drop, peak ground acceleration, and ringing count) were determined objectively using the Euclidean distance method. FCE was then applied to classify cluster risk levels, revealing that 70.9% of the clusters were rated as high-risk (Level IV). KDE further illustrated the spatiotemporal migration of high-risk zones, showing a systematic shift from northeast to southwest along stopes and roadways, driven by mining unloading and geological structures. The integrated HDBSCAN-FCE-KDE framework demonstrates strong applicability and reliability in identifying and predicting rock mass instability risks, providing a scientific basis for proactive risk management in deep mining environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section D2: Operations Research and Fuzzy Decision Making)

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21 pages, 6276 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Paraffin and Vinyl Acetate Ethylene (VAE) Emulsions on the Waterproofing and Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Modified Gypsum (FRMG) Matrix

by Zhenxing Li, Zuohua Li, Shaohua Rao, Dongning Li, Dejing Lu, Huaitao Zhu, Changyuan Liu, Jianzhe Shi and Xin Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1491; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081491 - 10 Apr 2026

Abstract

Gypsum-based materials are widely used in construction but suffer from poor water resistance and durability, limiting their application in moisture-prone environments. While fiber-reinforced modified gypsum (FRMG) improves mechanical performance, the lack of systematic research on waterproofing strategies and their influence on both durability and strength remains a key challenge. This study investigated three waterproofing methods: surface coating with paraffin emulsion, internal incorporation of paraffin emulsion, and internal incorporation of vinyl acetate ethylene (VAE) emulsion. The workability, water absorption, mechanical properties, contact angle, and microstructure of the FRMG matrix were analyzed. The results showed that surface coating provided only short-term waterproofing. Internal incorporation of paraffin emulsion reduced water absorption but weakened mechanical performance. In contrast, VAE emulsion formed continuous polymer films that filled pores, significantly reducing water absorption while improving flexural and compressive strength, with optimal performance observed at a 6% dosage. In addition, increasing emulsion content enhanced hydrophobicity. These results indicate that VAE-based internal modification is an effective approach to improving the durability and performance of gypsum-based materials, providing guidance for their application in interior wall systems and prefabricated building components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Latest Research on Building Materials and Structures)

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