Search Results (36)

Cannabis sativa L. exhibits a complex sensory profile governed by a diverse range of volatile and non-volatile compounds. Volatile constituents—such as terpenes, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and sulfur-containing compounds—together with non-volatile taste-active molecules including flavonoids and phenolic compounds, underlie its distinctive aroma and flavor. This review examines how genetic diversity, cultivation practices, and post-harvest processing modulate the synthesis, accumulation, and chemical transformation of these metabolites in the cannabis flower. It discusses recent advancements in the extraction, identification, and quantification of these compounds, highlighting the crucial integration of chemical characterization with sensory evaluation. By synthesizing findings from advanced analytical methodologies, this review addresses the challenges and opportunities involved in defining the sensory profiles of C. sativa L. varieties. Drawing insights from research on other consumer plants, strategies for future innovations are outlined, including the discovery of novel aroma and flavor compounds and the development of a universal cannabis aroma and flavor wheel. This work aims to support advancements in breeding programs, enhance product quality control, and guide future research in cannabis sensory science. Full article

Water availability is a key factor affecting both morphological development and secondary metabolite production in Cannabis sativa L. This study evaluated the effects of water stress applied during the vegetative and flowering stages on plant performance, cannabinoid concentration, and terpene composition in two Chemotype III (cannabidiol-dominant) varieties. Plants were subjected to moderate and severe water stress, and responses were assessed through biomass measurements, GC-MS analyses, and multivariate statistics. Water stress significantly influenced biomass allocation, with increased dry biomass but reduced harvest index, particularly under flowering-stage stress. Cannabidiol (CBD) content declined with increasing stress, while tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) levels increased under vegetative stress, indicating a stress-induced shift in cannabinoid biosynthesis. Cannabinol (CBN) levels also increased, suggesting enhanced THC degradation. Terpene composition was predominantly genotype-driven. PCA-MANOVA showed significant effects of variety, stress level, and their interaction, yet only minor volatiles were modulated by stress, while the most abundant terpenes remained stable across treatments, preserving the varietal aroma profile. These results underline the importance of genetic background and irrigation timing in determining cannabis yield and quality. Optimized water management is essential to ensure phytochemical consistency and sustainable production, especially in high-value medicinal and aromatic applications. Full article

Kombucha is a well-known fermented drink that gained interest due to its gut health benefits. However, it has a harsh taste of acetic acid and is hard to consume. Thai Cannabis leaves (Cannabis sativa sp. Hang Kra Rog Phu phan ST1) contain high protein and phytochemicals which can improve the growth of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and enhance the organoleptic quality of the Kombucha. This study revealed the effect of infusing assam green tea leaves with cannabis leaves on the fermentation rate, microbial communities, volatile compounds, and overall quality and taste of the kombucha. The high protein content (23.10%) of Cannabis leaves was found. Phytonutrients and phytochemicals found in the leaves promotes LAB growth, which resulted in the higher number of LAB in the treatment with cannabis leaves. At the end of fermentation (day 7), the highest LAB count (5.53 log CFU mL⁻¹) was presented in kombucha infused with 30% cannabis leaves. Kombucha with better quality, higher pH, and less acidity was obtained in a dose manner. The change in microbial communities was detected using metagenomic analysis. The prominence of Dekkera and Komagataeibacter, with low abundance of Zygosaccharomyces and Weissella were identified. These microorganisms improved flavor by lessening strong fermented odor and harsh acidic taste. From volatile compounds, HS-SPME-GCMS revealed that kombucha infused with 30% cannabis leaves possessed less acetic acid, ethanol, and carbon dioxide and gave a better odor and taste. Hence, cannabis leaves was the novel substrate for kombucha fermentation by enhancing LAB growth and improving the overall qualities. Full article

Volatile organic compounds, colloquially referred to as “terpenes”, have been proposed to impact the therapeutic qualities that are traditionally ascribed to cannabis. However, the contribution of these terpenes in anxiety, at relevant levels and exposure methods common with cannabis use, is lacking empirical assessment. We tested the anxiolytic properties of two prominent cannabis terpenes, linalool and β-myrcene, in male and female mice using short duration vapor pulls to model human inhalation when combusting flower or vaping cannabis oil. We observed sex differences in the locomotor effects in the open field and anxiolytic properties in the elevated plus maze of these terpenes that depended on their exposure characteristics. Both linalool and β-myrcene had anxiolytic effects in female mice when delivered in discrete vapor pulls over the course of 30 min. In male mice, only a single vapor hit containing linalool or β-myrcene had anxiolytic effects. The combination of sub-effective levels of linalool and the phytocannabinoid, cannabidiol (CBD), had synergistic anxiolytic effects in females, but these entourage effects between CBD and terpenes were absent with β-myrcene for females and for either terpene in males. Together, our findings reveal sex differences in the anxiolytic properties of common cannabis terpenes and highlight the potential benefits of unique combinations of CBD and terpenes in expanding the therapeutic dose window. Full article

Beer is one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world. Since the legalization of low-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (<0.03%) Cannabis sativa in the United States, this controversial plant is being looked upon as a potential flavor additive for use in beer. Cannabis sativa shares similar aromatic and flavor characteristics to that of hops (Humulus lupulus). This study was designed to determine the influence ethanol concentration has on the cannabinoid and volatile compounds found in beer. Three experimental beers with varying ethanol (3, 6, and 9% ABV) concentrations were used for this experiment. Using dry-hopping practices and dosing from commercial brewing techniques, hemp was placed in the beer for five days at 25 °C. Cannabinoids and volatile compounds were analyzed following the completion of the dry-hemping process. Statistical differences were observed only for the cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), while, no other individual cannabinoid or the summation of the total cannabinoids were statistically different. Volatile compounds were analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Statistical differences were observed between the monoterpenes and the sesquiterpenes volatile compound groups. In summary, ethanol concentration appears to have no impact on the extraction efficiency of cannabinoids but does appear to influence volatile compounds when hemp is added to beer through the dry-hemping process. Full article

Terpenes and terpenoids content in cannabis plant was already studied in the past with three used methods. Since these works did not compare the content of these substances under the same conditions, we tried to make this comparison exactly. Three different gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GS/MS) methods—hexane-based liquid extraction (Lis), static headspace extraction (HS), and headspace solid-phase microextraction (SPME)—were compared to identify volatile compounds in four different cannabis chemotypes—Green fields chemotype, Titan chemotype, Black Domina chemotype, and Neptune chemotype. The main compounds focused on were monoterpenes/monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenes/sesquiterpenoids. For a final evaluation of the comparison of the three methods of analysis, hexane extraction gives comparable results (which is advantageous for quantitative analysis), although the other two methods allowed the identification of more substances. This means that the same method should be used everywhere for the quantitative evaluation of constituents in cannabis. Full article

This study investigated the molecular, phytochemical, and biological aspects of ten local Moroccan traditional landrace Cannabis seeds. Genetic polymorphisms were analyzed using DNA barcode determination, revealing two distinct molecular profiles: “Cannabis, species sativa, subspecies indica” and “Cannabis, species sativa, subspecies sativa”. Furthermore, a new sequence was identified by sequencing of the THCA synthase coding gene. Chemical profiling via HPLC-ESI-FULL-MS and GC-MS-MS of AMSD1 maceration extracts revealed 13 non-volatile chemicals, including 3 inactive cannabinoids and 3 polyphenols, and 24 intriguing volatile compounds, including 7 previously unreported in Cannabis seed extracts. Moreover, the in vitro/in silico analysis provision of biological activities through their antioxidant power, antimicrobial effect, and cytotoxicity potency, as well as antiviral activity, were realized. These results contribute to a thorough comprehension of Moroccan Cannabis seeds, illuminating their molecular, phytochemical, and biological features. Furthermore, they highlight the seeds as a potential source of nutritious components with antioxidant properties, offering valuable insights for future research. Full article

Cannabis sativa L. is a plant that has been cultivated since ancient times thanks to its various uses. Even its extraction products, such as essential oil and hydrolate, having a varied chemical composition and rich in bioactive components, find wide use in different sectors, gathering ever-increasing interest over time. In this work, the essential oil of Cannabis sativa L. cv. Carmagnola was characterized by using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) and, for the first time, the chemical profile of the hydrolate was also described through different analytical techniques such as Large-Volume Injection Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (LVI-GC/MS) and Direct Immersion-Solid Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass spectrometry (DI-SPME-GC/MS), in order to provide a more complete compositional profile. The results of the analyses conducted on the hydrolate highlighted a high content of α-terpineol; on the other side, in the essential oil, a prevalence of monoterpenes, with α-pinene and limonene as the characterizing components, was detected. Both matrices were also investigated to evaluate their cytotoxic activity by using a panel of cancer cell lines derived from different histotypes such as melanoma (A375, LOX IMVI), non-small cell lung cancer (H1299, A549), colon (HT29) and pancreatic (L3.6) cancer cell lines. The obtained data demonstrated that essential oil was more effective than hydrolate in terms of reduction in cell viability. Full article

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of essential oils (EOs) extracted from Cannabis sativa L. and Cannabis indica Lam. on in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics, selected rumen microbial populations, and methane production. GC-MS analyses allowed us to identify 89 compounds in both EOs. It was found that E-β-caryophyllene predominated in C. sativa (18.4%) and C. indica (24.1%). An in vitro (Ankom) test was performed to analyse the control and monensin groups, as well as the 50 µL or 100 µL EOs. The samples for volatile fatty acids (VFAs), lactate, and microbiological analysis were taken before incubation and after 6 and 24 h. The application of EOs of C. indica resulted in an increase in the total VFAs of acetate and propionate after 6 h of incubation. The applied EOs had a greater impact on the reduction in methane production after 6 h, but no apparent effect was noted after 24 h. Lower concentrations of C. sativa and C. indica had a more pronounced effect on Lactobacillus spp. and Buryrivibrio spp. than monensin. The presented findings suggest that C. sativa and C. indica supplementation can modify ruminal fermentation, the concentrations of specific volatile fatty acids, and methane production. Full article

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) has been used for millennia as a rich source of food and fibers, whereas hemp flowers have only recently gained an increased market interest due to the presence of cannabinoids and volatile terpenes. Currently, the hemp flower processing industry predominantly focuses on either cannabinoid or terpene extraction. In an attempt to maximize the valorization of hemp flowers, the current study aimed to evaluate the phytochemical composition and antimicrobial properties of several extracts obtained from post-distillation by-products (e.g., spent material, residual distillation water) in comparison to the essential oil and total extract obtained from unprocessed hemp flowers. A terpene analysis of the essential oil revealed 14 monoterpenes and 35 sesquiterpenes. The cannabinoid profiling of extracts showed seven acidic precursors and 14 neutral derivatives, with cannabidiol (CBD) reaching the highest concentration (up to 16 wt.%) in the spent material extract. The antimicrobial assessment of hemp EO, cannabinoid-containing extracts, and single compounds (i.e., CBD, cannabigerol, cannabinol, and cannabichromene) against a panel of 20 microbial strains demonstrated significant inhibitory activities against Gram-positive bacteria, Helicobacter pylori, and Trichophyton species. In conclusion, this work suggests promising opportunities to use cannabinoid-rich materials from hemp flower processing in functional foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals with antimicrobial properties. Full article

A limited number of studies have examined how drying conditions affect the cannabinoid and terpene content in cannabis inflorescences. In the present study, we evaluated the potential of controlled atmosphere drying chambers for drying medicinal cannabis inflorescence. Controlled atmosphere drying chambers were found to reduce the drying and curing time by at least 60% compared to traditional drying methods, while preserving the volatile terpene content. On the other hand, inflorescences subjected to traditional drying were highly infested by Alternaria alternata and also revealed low infestation of Botrytis cinerea. In the high-THC chemovar (“240”), controlled N₂ and atm drying conditions preserved THCA concentration as compared to the initial time point (t₀). On the other hand, in the hybrid chemovar (“Gen12”) all of the employed drying conditions preserved THCA and CBDA content. The optimal drying conditions for preserving monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes in both chemovars were C5O5 (5% CO₂, 5% O₂, and 90% N₂) and pure N₂, respectively. The results of this study suggest that each chemovar may require tailored drying conditions in order to preserve specific terpenes and cannabinoids. Controlled atmosphere drying chambers could offer a cost-effective, fast, and efficient drying method for preserving cannabinoids and terpenes during the drying process while reducing the risk of mold growth. Full article

The development of selective extraction protocols for Cannabis-inflorescence constituents is still a significant challenge. The characteristic Cannabis fragrance can be mainly ascribed to monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and oxygenated terpenoids. This work investigates the entrapment of Cannabis terpenes in olive oil from inflorescences via stripping under mild vacuum during the rapid microwave-assisted decarboxylation of cannabinoids (MW, 120 °C, 30 min) and after subsequent extraction of cannabinoids (60 and 100 °C). The profiles of the volatiles collected in the oil samples before and after the extraction step were evaluated using static headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME), followed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Between the three fractions obtained, the first shows the highest volatile content (~37,400 mg/kg oil), with α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, limonene and trans-β-caryophyllene as the main components. The MW-assisted extraction at 60 and 100 °C of inflorescences using the collected oil fractions allowed an increase of 70% and 86% of total terpene content, respectively. Considering the initial terpene amount of 91,324.7 ± 2774.4 mg/kg dry inflorescences, the percentage of recovery after decarboxylation was close to 58% (mainly monoterpenes), while it reached nearly 100% (including sesquiterpenes) after extraction. The selective and efficient extraction of volatile compounds, while avoiding direct contact between the matrix and extraction solvents, paves the way for specific applications in various aromatic plants. In this context, aromatized extracts can be employed to create innovative Cannabis-based products within the hemp processing industry, as well as in perfumery, cosmetics, dietary supplements, food, and the pharmaceutical industry. Full article

Hemp is probably one of the most studied plants for its health-promoting properties, with countless documented and patented extraction methods, but literature is scarce on the simultaneous extraction of mixture of raw materials. Hemp, along with other plant materials, could represent a potentially highly valuable source material with resulting reciprocal effects. In this study, hemp (Cannabis sativa) and three members of the Zingiberaceae family, ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa), and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), were extracted simultaneously, and their bioactive component values were investigated. Two extraction methods were used, namely ultrasound-assisted extraction with ethanol and supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide. First, extracts were obtained from separate plant materials. Then, hemp was extracted in combination with ginger, turmeric, and cardamom in a 1:1 ratio. The extracts obtained were evaluated for their antioxidant activity and total phenolic content using UV/VIS spectrophotometry; cannabinoid content, 6-gingerol, and 6-shogaol were measured using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS); volatile components such as 1,8-cineole, alpha-terpinyl acetate, linalool, and aR-turmerone were measured using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Full article

The phytochemistry of fibre hemp (Cannabis sativa L., cv. Futura 75 and Felina 32) cultivated in Lithuania was investigated. The soil characteristics (conductivity, pH and major elements) of the cultivation field were determined. The chemical composition of hemp extracts and essential oils (EOs) from different plant parts was determined by the HPLC/DAD/TOF and GC/MS techniques. Among the major constituents, β-caryophyllene (≤46.64%) and its oxide (≤14.53%), α-pinene (≤20.25%) or α-humulene (≤11.48) were determined in EOs. Cannabidiol (CBD) was a predominant compound (≤64.56%) among the volatile constituents of the methanolic extracts of hemp leaves and inflorescences. Appreciable quantities of 2-monolinolein (11.31%), methyl eicosatetraenoate (9.70%) and γ-sitosterol (8.99%) were detected in hemp seed extracts. The octadecenyl ester of hexadecenoic acid (≤31.27%), friedelan-3-one (≤21.49%), dihydrobenzofuran (≤17.07%) and γ-sitosterol (14.03%) were major constituents of the methanolic extracts of hemp roots, collected during various growth stages. The CBD quantity was the highest in hemp flower extracts in pentane (32.73%). The amounts of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) were up to 24.21% in hemp leaf extracts. The total content of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) isomers was the highest in hemp flower pentane extracts (≤22.43%). The total phenolic content (TPC) varied from 187.9 to 924.7 (average means, mg/L of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)) in aqueous unshelled hemp seed and flower extracts, respectively. The TPC was determined to be up to 321.0 (mg/L GAE) in root extracts. The antioxidant activity (AA) of hemp extracts and Eos was tested by the spectrophotometric DPPH^● scavenging activity method. The highest AA was recorded for hemp leaf EOs (from 15.034 to 35.036 mmol/L, TROLOX equivalent). In the case of roots, the highest AA (1.556 mmol/L, TROLOX) was found in the extracts of roots collected at the seed maturation stage. The electrochemical (cyclic and square wave voltammetry) assays correlated with the TPC. The hydrogen-peroxide-scavenging activity of extracts was independent of the TPC. Full article