Search Results (326)

Background: Deceptive caffeine ingestion has shown inconsistent effects as an ergogenic aid for short-term exercises. Objective: Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential placebo effect of deceptive caffeine ingestion on short-term performance during countermovement and repeated-jump tests, as well as bench press throw and bench press-to-failure assessments, and to document any associated side effects. Methods: A repeated, randomized, and counterbalanced design was implemented to compare the effects of ingesting a placebo claimed to be caffeine with a control condition in which no substance was consumed. Twenty-five physically active young adults (17 men and 8 women) completed a countermovement jump (CMJ) test, a 15 s repeated-jump test, bench press throws at 25%, 50%, and 75% of 1RM, and a bench press-to-failure test at 75% of 1RM and also completed a questionnaire regarding potential side effects. Results: Performance was similar between the placebo and control in the CMJ (38.1 ± 6.8 vs. 37.5 ± 6.8 cm; p = 0.225; d = 0.25) and in the 15 s repeated-jump test (p > 0.05; trivial–small effects). In the bench press throw, propulsive mean velocity did not differ at 25% 1RM (p = 0.296; d = 0.23) or 50% 1RM (p = 0.626; d = 0.10). However, deceptive caffeine ingestion increased propulsive mean velocity at 75% 1RM (0.500 ± 0.131 vs. 0.480 ± 0.131 m/s; p = 0.024; d = 0.48) and increased repetitions to failure at the same load (11.9 ± 3.7 vs. 11.0 ± 3.1; p = 0.047; d = 0.42). Mean velocity during the first 3 repetitions tended to be higher with the placebo (p = 0.064; d = 0.39), while final repetitions were similar (p = 0.469; d = 0.15). The most common side effects were increased activeness (34.8%) and nervousness (17.4%). Conclusions: In summary, deceptive caffeine ingestion had minimal impact on jump and ballistic bench press performance in physically active individuals. However, repetitions to failure were improved by ≈1 repetition (+8.2%). These findings suggest that the placebo effect of caffeine is unlikely to serve as a reliable strategy for enhancing short-term exercise performance. Full article

Background: Strength and the strength–power continuum may increase athletic performance, although data are scarce regarding the effects of long-term periodized training on the athletic performance of adolescent track and field athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate performance modifications following 8 weeks of strength and strength–power resistance training, focusing on the athletic performance of adolescent track and field athletes. Methods: Following an equivalent single-arm pre–post intervention design, 16 adolescent athletes (age: 16.3 ± 0.5 years; mass: 56.5 ± 10.4 kg; height: 1.67 ± 0.07 m) participated in the study. Athletes followed an 8-week periodized resistance training program aiming to increase strength and strength–power. Measurements were performed before (T1), at the middle (T2) and at the end of the training period (T3) and included the standing long jump, single-leg standing long jump, five-step long jump, seated medicine ball throw, 0–80 m sprint and 1RM in the bench press and parallel squat. Results: The standing long jump (F_(2,14) = 109.564; η² = 0.940; p = 0.001), single-leg long jump (F_(2,14) > 41.801; η² = 0.857; p = 0.001) and five-step long jump (F_(2,14) = 148.564; η² = 0.955; p = 0.001) improved significantly from T1 to T2 (p < 0.001) and from T2 to T3 (p < 0.001). The seated medicine ball throw (F_(2,14) = 124.305; η² = 0.947; p = 0.001) and sprinting performance (F_(2,14) = 51.581; η² = 0.828; p = 0.001) were significantly enhanced from T1 to T2 (p < 0.001) and from T2 to T3 (p < 0.001). The 1RM in the bench press (F_(2,14) = 36.280; η² = 0.838, p = 0.001) and in the parallel squat (F_(2,14) = 48.165; η² = 0.873, p = 0.001) increased significantly from T1 to T2 (p < 0.001) and from T2 to T3 (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Strength and the strength–power continuum appear to have a positive effect on the physical fitness of adolescent track and field athletes, which highlights the importance of strength-based resistance training programs in adolescent athletes. Full article

Background: The objective of this study was to analyze the absolute and relative reliability intersession for a maximal isometric muscle strength protocol in the bilateral seated bench press (BSBP), bilateral seated row (BSR), unilateral seated knee right extension (USKER) and unilateral seated knee left extension (USKEL) in a population of older adults. Methods: Eighteen older adults (age = 69.38 ± 5.06 years; weight = 75.79 ± 14.18 kg; height = 1.61 ± 0.08 m; BMI = 28.98 ± 5.04 kg/m². The maximal isometric muscle strength assessment was performed in a seated position. Participants were asked to exert maximum effort during the exercise. The BSBP and BSR assessments were performed bilaterally with shoulders and elbows at 90°, while the USKER and USKEL assessments were performed unilaterally. Three sets of 5 secondswere performed with a 3 minutes rest between measurements until maximum isometric strength was reached in all four measurements. Results: In the inter-session reliability measurements, acceptable absolute reliability was presented for BSR and USKER, and extremely high reliability for the BSBP and USKEL measures. In addition, extremely high relative reliability was reported for all assessments of maximum isometric muscle strength, with no significant differences were observed (p > 0.05) and an ES classified as null (ES < 0.12). Conclusions: The main results of this study show that maximal isometric muscle strength in bilateral seated bench press, bilateral seated row, and unilateral seated right and left knee extension, assessed using the Chronojump Force Sensor Kit, is reliable and reproducible for the elderly population. Full article

Background: Neuromuscular determinants such as maximal force, maximal velocity, and upper-body power are recognized as key contributors to competitive swimming performance. However, despite the relevance of these dry-land qualities, their relationships with the physiological mechanisms underpinning in-water performance, particularly aerobic and anaerobic capacities, remain insufficiently established. Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the relationships between upper-body load–velocity profile parameters (theoretical maximal force: F₀; theoretical maximal velocity: V₀; and maximal power: P_max), aerobic capacity expressed through critical velocity, and anaerobic capacity in trained swimmers. Methods: Thirty competitive male swimmers (age = 16.50 ± 0.31 years) completed an upper-body load–velocity profile test using the bench press exercise to determine F₀, V₀, and P_max. Swimming performances in the 100, 200, and 400 m freestyle events were used to calculate critical velocity and anaerobic capacity based on a linear distance–time model. Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between variables. Results: P_max (r = 0.493, p = 0.006) and V₀ (r = 0.697, p < 0.001) showed moderate to strong correlations with critical velocity, whereas F₀ showed no significant association (r = 0.152, p = 0.422). Conversely, anaerobic capacity was strongly correlated with F₀ (r = 0.842, p < 0.001) but not with V₀ (p = 0.119). Regression models indicated that F₀ explained 71% of the variance in anaerobic capacity, while V₀ explained 48% of the variance in critical velocity. Conclusion: The findings demonstrated distinct contributions of neuromuscular qualities: speed and power-oriented parameters are associated with critical velocity, whereas maximal strength strongly associated with anaerobic capacity. Monitoring the upper-body load–velocity profile appears to be a relevant tool for individualizing dry-land training according to the aerobic and anaerobic demands of swimmers. Full article

Introduction: Red spinach powder (RSP) contains high amounts of inorganic nitrate/nitrite (NO₃/NO₂), which has been suggested to alter vascular activity, cognitive processing, and sprint exercise performance. There have been few investigations as to whether RSP serves as an ergogenic aid to improve resistance exercise performance, particularly muscular endurance. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate acute RSP (VitaSpinach^®) supplementation on muscular endurance and velocity during bench press exercise. Methods: In a double-blind, counterbalanced crossover manner, resistance-trained males (n = 14) were subjected to two supplement conditions as follows: (1) placebo (PL; purple sweet potato) or (2) red spinach powder (RSP; 400 mg NO₃). Supplements were consumed 2 h prior to exercise and blood was collected immediately pre-exercise to determine NO₃/NO₂ levels. To determine barbell velocity, participants completed two sets × two repetitions with maximal effort, while a rotary encoder measured mean barbell velocity. Following this, participants performed three sets × repetitions to exhaustion (RTE) at 60% of 1-Repetition Maximum (1-RM), separated by 2 min of rest, to determine muscular endurance. Local (lRPE) and global (gRPE) ratings of perceived exertion were measured after exercise. Blood NO₃/NO₂, RTE, mean velocity, lRPE, and gRPE were compared between supplement conditions. Results: RSP resulted in significantly higher blood levels of total NO₃/NO₂ (p < 0.001) compared to PL. RSP did not result in superior total RTE (p = 0.935) but increased mean velocity (p = 0.035) compared to PL. Both lRPE (p = 0.027) and gRPE (p = 0.028) were significantly reduced with RSP supplementation. Conclusions: Findings suggest acute RSP ingestion increased NO₃/NO₂ and bench press velocity. While muscular endurance remained unchanged, RSP resulted in lower perceptions of exertion. Full article

Background: Rhodiola rosea (RR) is marketed as an adaptogen; however, evidence for acute/short-term effects—and especially dose–response effects—in trained adults across performance and cognition is limited. Objective: Test whether RR improves resistance performance (strength, power) and executive function in resistance-trained adults using a randomized crossover with placebo and a capsule-free baseline. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial with four conditions—no-capsule control (CON), placebo (PL), low-dose RR (LDRR), and high-dose RR (HDRR). Twenty-seven resistance-trained adults completed the conditions. Day-7 testing included bench press (BP) and leg press (LP) 1-repetition maximum (1RM); a third set to failure at 60% 1RM with set-3 volume; Tendo mean/peak power; a 30 s Wingate; and the Stroop Color–Word Test. Secondary endpoints were Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE), Readiness to perform using a Visual Analog Scale (VAS), and hemodynamics. Results: Versus CON, LDRR increased BP 1RM (+5.59 kg; p = 0.003), set-3 repetitions (+4.30; p < 0.001), set-3 volume (+168.6 kg; p < 0.001), and mean power (+29.7 W; p = 0.026). HDRR increased set-3 repetitions (+2.78; p = 0.005) and peak power (+34.2 W; p = 0.026), with a trend for set-3 volume (p = 0.086). LP 1RM exceeded CON with LDRR (+35.7 kg; p < 0.001) and HDRR (+47.7 kg; p < 0.001); contrasts vs. PL were significant. Wingate outcomes showed no consistent effects. Stroop improved vs. CON across all sections: Word +10.5 to +17.4 counts (p < 0.05), Color +6.1 to +12.0 (p ≤ 0.03), and Color–Word +10.2 to +18.9 (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Short-term RR consumption, regardless of dose or gender, improved resistance performance and significantly enhanced Stroop outcomes, with minimal changes in anaerobic cycling and RPE, and no consistent acute hemodynamic effects. Full article

Resistance exercise (RE) is a well-known modality to increase skeletal muscle strength and hypertrophy. While both high-load (HL) and low-load (LL) RE stimulate skeletal muscle growth, the effects of RE load on androgen-regulated genes remain unclear. Further, the relationship between circulating and intramuscular androgen-associated targets and muscular strength and mass has not been well defined. Purpose: This investigation therein aimed to examine acute gene and hormone responses to volume- and intensity-equated RE at different loads, examining their relationships with lean body mass (LBM), strength, and circulating and intramuscular androgen-related biomarkers. Methods: Ten resistance-trained males completed one-repetition maximum (1RM) testing, as well as body composition testing, before two volume- and intensity-equated RE sessions, separated by a 7–10 day crossover period. Serum and skeletal muscle samples were collected at baseline, 3 h, and 24 h post-exercise to assess testosterone (TST), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), AR protein, AR mRNA, and AR–DNA binding. Pearson correlations evaluated any potential associations between LBM, strength, and androgen/AR biomarkers. Results: Training load did not significantly impact gene expression, but time effects were observed, whereby MyoD peaked 3 h post-exercise (2.03 ± 1.64 fold; p = 0.005), while AR mRNA decreased at 24 h (0.54 ± 0.42 fold; p = 0.021) versus baseline. LBM also correlated with bench press (r = 0.607, p = 0.048) and leg press (r = 0.705, p = 0.015) 1RM. Serum total TST correlated with leg press 1RM (r = 0.909, p = 0.012), while serum-free TST correlated with AR mRNA fold-change (r = 0.392, p = 0.001) and AR–DNA binding (r = 0.287, p = 0.021). Intramuscular DHT correlated with intramuscular TST (r = 0.415, p < 0.001) and AR protein (r = 0.421, p < 0.001). Lastly, fold changes in AR mRNA were correlated with MyoD mRNA fold changes (r = 0.785, p = 0.007) along with IGF1-Ea mRNA fold changes being significantly correlated with both myogenin mRNA fold changes (r = 0.865, p = 0.001) and AR-DNA binding (r = −0.727, p = 0.017). Conclusions: Despite no observable load-specific effects, RE elicited time-dependent increases in MyoD and AR mRNA expression. This reinforces prior LBM and maximal muscular strength relationship evidence whilst also lending new insights into circulating and intramuscular androgen interactions with AR. Full article

Background: The study evaluated the acute effect of dryland maximum strength (MS) training on water polo performance. Methods: Twelve female players (20.3 ± 1.4 years) underwent initial assessments, including a head-out 20 m swim and a one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength test in three exercises: bench press, seated pull row, and half squat. These exercises were used as the experimental (EXP) condition. During the main testing sessions, participants completed the EXP and a control (CON) condition. In the EXP, players completed MS training (three sets of six repetitions at 80% 1RM), followed 15 min later by in-water testing. In the CON, only the in-water tests were performed. These included a 10 s tethered swim to measure force, a 20 m head-out swim at maximum intensity to measure performance time, ten goal-targeted throws to reach the highest accuracy and throwing velocity, and three in-water vertical jumps as high as possible. Results: The performance time in the head-out 20 m swim (EXP: 14.21 ± 0.4, CON: 14.18 ± 0.5 s), tethered swimming force (EXP: 86.85 ± 14.82, CON: 89.58 ± 15.92 N), shooting velocity (EXP: 14.67 ± 1.19, CON: 14.91 ± 0.32 m·s⁻¹), shooting accuracy (EXP: 16.5 ± 5.4, CON: 19.0 ± 5.1 points), and in-water vertical jump height (EXP: 51.7 ± 5.6, CON: 52.9 ± 4.2 cm) were no different between conditions (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Dryland maximum strength training performed with high loads (80% 1RM) does not impair subsequent performance during sport-specific testing in female water polo players. These findings suggest that such MS training can be safely implemented 15 min prior to in-water training sessions. Full article

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to investigate changes in the descending thoracic aorta (DTA) values in athletes while performing a bench press exercise, and to evaluate their relationship with vitamin levels and nutritional values. Materials and Methods: The study used speckle tracking to assess changes in DTA parameters in athletes before and after bench press exercise, compared to non-athlete controls. Measurements included rotational and radial velocities, circumferential strain and strain rate, and displacement. Results: The study included 60 non-athlete controls and 178 athletes performing bench press exercises. In a 10-year follow-up of 30 weightlifters, aortic speckle tracking values were age-matched with controls. No significant baseline differences were observed between groups. However, following exercise, all measurements demonstrated increases: DTA rotational velocity (55.44 ± 16.15 vs. 88.98 ± 10.31°/s), radial velocity (1.02 ± 0.36 vs. 1.56 ± 0.42 cm/s), circumferential strain (−8.52 ± 0.31 vs. −12.55 ± 1.13), strain rate (−1.55 ± 0.72 vs. −2.28 ± 0.56 s⁻¹), rotational displacement (6.22 ± 0.36 vs. 14.91 ± 0.85°), and radial displacement (0.89 ± 0.31 vs. 1.19 ± 0.65 mm), with all p-values < 0.05. Rotational displacement correlated with maximal repetition (88.56 ± 12.59 Kg) and vitamin levels. Conclusions: This study hypothesizes that bench press exercise is linked to increased DTA velocities, strain, strain rate, and displacement. Full article

Psychological “priming” strategies such as music, self-talk, imagery, and audience effects are commonly used by athletes, yet their acute influence on resistance training performance and underlying endocrine responses is unclear. We conducted three crossover studies in collegiate adults (n = 64) examining self-selected music (SSM), motivational self-talk with imagery (MSTI) or without (MST), and observation either in-person (OE) or via social media (SM) compared with control (CON). Performance tests included a 3-repetition maximum (3RM) back squat, four sets of a 4RM bench press, and a 65% 1RM back squat to failure. Salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) concentrations were assessed to explore potential mechanisms. Across studies, no condition yielded statistically significant differences versus CON (p > 0.05); however, small-to-moderate effect sizes suggested practically relevant improvements. For example, 3RM back squat load increased under SSM (g = 0.26) and MSTI (g = 0.22), while SM observation improved repetitions to failure (g = 0.33) and produced a moderate rise in T (g = 0.79). Several priming strategies also favourably altered the T:C ratio. These findings suggest that although group-level changes were subtle, individualized responses may allow athletes to benefit from simple, free interventions that could accumulate into meaningful performance gains when applied repeatedly in training. Future work with larger samples and long-term training designs is warranted to confirm these effects and whether changes in T and C are modulating the priming response. Full article

Monitoring muscle fatigue is essential for ensuring safety and maximizing the effectiveness of resistance training. Conventional methods such as electromyography (EMG), inertial measurement units (IMU), and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) involve complex procedures and have limited applicability, particularly in unsupervised or robotic exercise environments. This study proposes a machine learning-based approach to directly predict RPE from force–time data collected during repeated isokinetic bench press sets. Thirty-two male participants (64 limb datasets) performed seven sets at a standardized 7RM load, with load cell data and RPE scores recorded. Biomechanical features representing magnitude, variability, energy, and temporal dynamics were extracted, along with engineered features reflecting relative changes and inter-set variations. The findings indicate that RPE is more closely related to relative fatigue progression than to absolute biomechanical output. Incorporating engineered features substantially improved predictive performance, with the Random Forest model achieving the highest accuracy and more than 93% of predictions falling within ±1 RPE unit of the reported values. The proposed approach can be seamlessly integrated into intelligent resistance machines, enabling automated load adjustment and providing substantial potential for applications in both athletic training and rehabilitation contexts. Full article

Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effects of varying antagonist volume in upper-body supersets on mechanical (lifting velocity), metabolic (blood lactate), and perceptual (perceived exertion) variables. Methods: A randomized crossover study was conducted in which 14 resistance-trained men performed three strength training conditions. In the control condition (CTR), participants performed four sets of bench press with 8 repetitions at their 12-repetition maximum load, whereas in the experimental conditions, a prone bench pull was performed immediately after the bench press using 33% (SS1) or 66% (SS2) of the individual’s maximum possible repetitions. Lifting velocity, lactate concentration, and perceived exertion were measured. Repeated-measures ANOVA or Friedman test was applied to compare conditions, with Bonferroni-corrected post hoc tests and effect sizes reported. Results: Despite a progressive decrease in mean set velocity (p < 0.001) and fastest set velocity across sets (p = 0.014) in the agonist exercise (i.e., bench press), these variables did not significantly differ between conditions. The only difference observed was a lower mean set velocity during the prone bench pull in the SS2 condition compared to the SS1 condition (p = 0.011). Perceived exertion also increased across sets (p < 0.001), with no differences between protocols. Blood lactate concentration, measured before the final set, was significantly higher in SS2 compared to CTR (p = 0.003) and SS1 (p < 0.001), indicating a greater metabolic load during training. Conclusions: Agonist–antagonist supersets allow for reduced training time without negatively impacting acute mechanical performance in the agonist exercise. Low-fatigue configurations (SS1) in the secondary exercise do not significantly increase lactate levels, while moderate-fatigue configurations (SS2) in the secondary exercise increase metabolic load. Full article

Introduction: Paralympic powerlifting (PP) is a sport in which the bench press is the sole exercise. Warm-up routines are considered essential for optimal performance. Objectives: This study aims to analyze different types of warm-up protocols—traditional warm-up (TW), post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE), and without warm-up (WW)—and their effects on dynamic strength indicators, core temperature, and skin temperature in athletes with disabilities. Methods: Fourteen nationally ranked PP athletes participated in the study. Their performance was evaluated following different warm-up protocols. Dynamic variables analyzed included Maximum Velocity (VMax), Mean Propulsive Velocity (MPV), and Power output. Additionally, tympanic and skin temperatures were measured. Results: No significant differences were observed in dynamic strength indicators across the different warm-up protocols. Thermographic analysis revealed differences only in the triceps muscle between PAPE and TW (p < 0.001), TW and WW (p = 0.004), and PAPE and WW (p = 0.015). Differences were also observed between TW and WW (p = 0.026). Ten minutes post-warm-up, differences were noted between PAPE and WW (p < 0.001) and between TW and WW (p = 0.001). In the WW condition, significant differences were found between pre-warm-up and 10 min post-warm-up (p = 0.031), as well as between post-warm-up and 10 min later (p = 0.003). Conclusions: The study evaluated the potential impact of warm-ups on dynamic indicators of strength, core temperature, and skin temperature. No differences were found between the warm-up methods for strength indicators. Regarding skin temperature, only the triceps showed differences between the PAPE and Traditional methods. Regarding core temperature, after warm-up and 10 min later, the methods without warm-up showed higher temperatures than the PAPE and Traditional methods. Therefore, in practical applications, warm-up methods do not appear to interfere with strength indicators, with lower skin temperatures for the triceps in the PAPE methods. Full article

This study aimed to determine whether traditional approaches based on baseline or group-adjusted 1RM values, or velocity-based methods, provide more accurate 1RM estimations after short-term training programs. Thirty resistance-trained men were randomly assigned to either a ballistic training group (bench press [BP] throw at 40% 1RM) or a traditional strength training group (BP at 70–90% 1RM) for 4 weeks (2 sessions/week). The post-intervention BP 1RM was compared to four 1RM estimations: (i) baseline 1RM—the pre-intervention value without modification; (ii) group-adjusted 1RM—the baseline adjusted by the group-level percentage change in 1RM; (iii) load-velocity profile—estimated post-intervention as the load corresponding to a mean velocity of 0.17 m·s⁻¹; and (iv) baseline %1RM–velocity extrapolation—estimated from a single post-intervention velocity applied to the pre-intervention individual %1RM–velocity relationship. Trivial differences (ES < 0.20) were found between actual and estimated 1RM, except for a small underestimation using baseline 1RM in both groups (ballistic: ES = −0.28; traditional: ES = −0.23). Velocity-based methods showed greater accuracy (absolute errors: 2.0–2.1 kg) compared to baseline (5.1 kg) and group-adjusted (4.4 kg) approaches. These results suggest that, after a 4-week training period, velocity-based methods provide more accurate guidance for load prescription than baseline 1RM values. Full article

Background: The multifactorial nature of CrossFit performance remains incompletely understood, particularly regarding sex- and experience-related physiological and biomechanical factors. Methods: Fifteen trained athletes (8 males, 7 females) completed assessments of anthropometry, estimated one-repetition maximums (bench press, back squat, deadlift), squat jump (SJ), maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), ventilatory responses ($\dot{\mathrm{V}}$E), and heart rate (HR). Spearman, Pearson, and partial correlations were calculated with Holm and false discovery rate (FDR) corrections. Results: Males displayed greater body mass, lean and muscle mass, maximal strength, and aerobic capacity than females (all Holm-adjusted p < 0.01). Experienced athletes completed Fran faster than beginners despite broadly similar anthropometric and aerobic profiles. In the pooled sample, WOD time showed moderate negative relationships with estimated 1RM back squat (ρ = −0.54), deadlift (ρ = −0.56), and bench press (ρ = −0.65) before correction; none remained significant after Holm/FDR adjustment, and partial correlations controlling for training years were further attenuated. Conclusions: This exploratory study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that maximal strength may contribute to Fran performance, whereas conventional aerobic measures were less influential. However, given the very small sample (n = 15, 8 males and 7 females) and the fact that no relationships remained statistically significant after correction for multiple testing, the results must be regarded as preliminary, hypothesis-generating evidence only, requiring confirmation in larger and adequately powered studies. Full article