Search Results (17)

Phenolic acids were identified, and their content was determined in the grain of four species of wheat: common wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare), spelt (T. aestivum ssp. spelta), durum (T. turgidum ssp. durum), and einkorn (T. monococcum) grown at two different levels of cultivation technology: medium and high. Thirteen acids were identified for each species. Einkorn cultivar PL 5003 had the highest content of phenolic acids, reaching up to 2106 mg 100 g⁻¹ DM. The response of various species to the levels of technology applied was varied, but ferulic acid was always predominant (465–868 mg 100 g⁻¹ DM). Common wheat and spelt responded with a decrease in the content of the acids when tested using the higher level of technology (on average by 265 and 62 mg), while their content increased in durum wheat and einkorn (282 and 352 mg). A clear response to weather conditions was also observed; most of the genotypes had a higher content of phenolic acids when there was more rainfall. The present study provides the basis for using these genotypes to produce food with increased nutritional content using appropriate agricultural procedures. Full article

Spelt wheat is one of the oldest wheats cultivated by humans. It is characterised by high nutritional values and is sought after by consumers. Additionally, it does not have high habitat and fertilisation requirements and is resistant to diseases. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different levels of nitrogen fertilisation and the intensification of fungicide protection on the grain quality characteristics of spelt cv. ‘Rokosz’ grown under south-eastern Polish conditions. The present research showed that the intensification of fungicide crop protection and increasing the nitrogen dose from 70 to 130 kg ha⁻¹ had a positive effect on the quality features of spelt grains. The highest protein, gluten and starch contents were found after four fungicide treatments. These parameters increased their values under the influence of fungicides. After the application of 130 kg ha⁻¹, spelt wheat grain had the most favourable chemical composition, containing the most protein, gluten, soluble dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre and fat. It also had a positive effect on the Zeleny sedimentation index and the amino acid content of the grain. Due to the favourable response of the spelt cv. ‘Rokosz’ to intensified fungicide protection and nitrogen fertilisation, it should be recommended for cultivation in integrated technology. Full article

Altogether, 39 cereal flour samples taken from a Serbian market were analyzed for mycobiota and mycotoxin content, among which were six Triticum aestivum specimens, five Triticum dicoccum specimens, four Hordeum vulgare specimens, five Fagopyrum esculentum specimens, three Secale cereale specimens, five Triticum spelta specimens, four Avena sativa specimens, two Oryza sativa specimens, two Zea mays specimens, and one specimen each of Panicum miliaceum, Triticum monococcum, and Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum. To determine the mycobiota content using dilution techniques, the flour samples were transferred to a non-selective DG18 nutrient. The number of coloniforming units (CFU/g) varied from less than 100 (in the case of five samples, namely, two O. sativa, and one specimen each of S. cereale, H. vulgare, and T. aestivum) to as high as 5000 CFU/g (S. cereale), 6000 (A. sativa), 11,000 (T. aesticum), and 40,000 (Z. mays). The identification of fungal genera and species was performed on Czapex-Dox Agar and Potato dextrose Agar on the basis of the isolates’ colony characteristics and the morphology of the examined reproductive organs. The isolated fungi belonged to the following genera: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Fusarium. Species from these genera are well-known mycotoxin-producing fungi. Among the identified species were A. candidus, A. flavus, A. carbonarius, A. ochraceus, A. oryzae, P. solitum, P. citrinum, P. griseofulvum, P. brevicompactum, A. alternata, F. avenaceum, and F. graminearum. The mycotoxin content was determined via the ELISA technique using Eurofins Technologies Hungary KFT kits for aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, total aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone. In the case of eighteen samples, the total aflatoxin content was above the limit of detection, and seven of these samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B1, eight were contaminated with ochratoxin A, two were contaminated with dexynivalenol, and one was contaminated with zearalenon. Two samples of T. aestivum were contaminated with one or more toxins (33%), and the number of samples contaminated three for T. dicoccum (60%), one for H. vulgare (25%), four for F. esculentum (80%), one for S. cereale (33%), two for T. spelta (40%), three for A. sativa (75%), two for O. sativa (100%), two for Z. mays (100%), one for P. miliaceum (100%), one for T. monococcum (100%), and one for T. turgidum ssp. turanicum (100%). Full article

Spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. spelta Thell.) is an ancient wheat that has been widely cultivated for hundreds of years. Recently, this species has been neglected in most of Europe; however, the desire for more natural and traditional foods has driven a revival of the crop. In the current study, eighty-eight traditional spelt genotypes from Spain, together with nine common wheat cultivars and one modern spelt (cv. Anna Maria) were grown during a period of two years in Andalucia (southern Spain). In each, several traits were measured in to evaluate their milling, processing, and end-use quality (bread-making). The comparison between species suggested that, in general, spelt and common wheat showed differences for most of the measured traits; on average, spelt genotypes had softer grains, higher protein content (14.3 vs. 11.9%) and gluten extensibility (alveograph P/L 0.5 vs. 1.8), and lower gluten strength (alveograph W 187 vs. 438 × 10⁻⁴ J). In the baking test, both species showed similar values. Nevertheless, the analysis of this set of spelt genotypes showed a wide range for all measured traits, with higher values than common wheat in some spelt genotypes for some traits. This opens up the possibility of using these materials in future breeding programs, to develop either new spelt or common wheat cultivars. Full article

Nowadays, consumers show a growing interest in the consumption of foods made with ancestral grains, the main components of the diet of our ancestors. The ancestral grains come from millenary cultivars and have now burst onto the international market as part of a nutritious and healthy diet. Some of these crops refer to ancestral wheats. The objective of this study was to determine the nutritional characteristics of ancient wheats compared to the modern one. Ancient crops such as emmer (Triticum dicoccum, known as “farro medio” or “farro”), khorasan (Triticum turanicum, the best known kamut) and/or spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta, known as “escanda” or “farro grande”) were the raw materials of the current investigation. Characterization of wheat seeds/whole flours in terms of moisture, ash, total dietary fiber, proteins, and lipids, phytates and phytase activity were determined. In general, these analyses do not support the suggestion that ancient wheats are generally more nutritious and/or healthy than modern wheats. The results support the consumption recommendation of the intake of whole grains (modern or ancients) to prevent non-transmissible illnesses. Full article

The aim of this three-year field experiment was to determine how simplified (reduced) pre-planting tillage and different weed control methods impact the yield and selected quality parameters of spelt grain (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.). Conventional tillage and three variants of reduced tillage (RT) were tested. The second experimental variable (weed control) had three variants: mechanical weed control (M), combined mechanical + chemical treatment at full herbicide rate (MC 100%), and combined mechanical + chemical treatment at 25%-reduced herbicide rate (MC 75%). The mechanical method consisted of harrowing the wheat crop in the fall and spring. The results showed that the wheat yields obtained under reduced pre-planting tillage were comparable to those under conventional tillage. However, the grain quality parameters proved to be worse under the reduced tillage regimes. Herbicide applications, both at full and reduced rates, significantly improved grain quality parameters and yields compared with mechanical-only weed control. In particular, the herbicide-treated crops boasted higher values of thousand-kernel weight and grain weight per ear. Full article

Climate change, including decreasing rainfall, makes cultivating cereals more difficult. Drought stress reduces plant growth and most all yields. On the other hand, consumers’ interest in ancient wheat varieties, including spelt, is growing. The aim of this work is to compare the response to drought stress between spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) and common wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare). Six cultivars of spelt from different European countries and common wheat ‘Bogatka’ as a reference were chosen for research. The photosynthesis process, chlorophyll fluorescence, relative water content, and the content of free proline and anthocyanins in well-watered and drought-stressed plants were measured. It was shown that the spelt cultivars ‘Franckenkorn’ and ‘Badengold’ were much more resistant to water deficit than other cultivars and even common wheat. A slight reduction of CO₂ assimilation (by 27%) and no reduction of transpiration rate, with simultaneous intensive proline (eighteen times fold increase) and anthocyanins accumulation (increase by 222%) along with a slight increase in lipid peroxidation level (1.9%) revealed in ‘Franckenkorn’ prove that this cultivar can cope with drought and can be effectively cultivated in areas with limited water abundance. Full article

Native communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) constitute a natural biofertilization, biocontrol, and bioprotection factor for most agricultural crops, including cereals. The present study investigated the native AMF population in cultivated spelt, i.e., a cereal that has not been analyzed in this respect to date. In particular, the aim of the study was to determine the number of spores and the degree of AMF root colonization in two spelt cultivars (Franckenkorn and Badengold) from a 3-year monoculture grown in two different cultivation systems: conventional tillage and no-tillage systems. The study showed considerable accumulation of AMF spores in the soil (on average 1325 in 100 g of air-dry soil), with a wide range of their numbers, and not a very high degree of endomycorrhizal colonization (on average from 3.0% to 31%). The intensity of AMF growth in the subsequent cultivation years gradually increased and depended on the cultivation system as well as the growth stage and cultivar of the spelt. It was found that both analyzed AMF growth indices in the no-tillage system were positively correlated with each other. Moreover, their values were higher in the no-tillage system than in the conventional system, with statistical significance only for the number of spores. This was mainly observed in the variant with the Franckenkorn cultivar. The effect of the growing season was evident in both cultivation systems and spelt cultivars. It was reflected by intensification of sporulation and mycorrhization of spelt roots by AMF in summer (maturation stage) compared with the spring period (flowering stage). Full article

Individuals with suspected non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) often report better tolerance of spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) compared to wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum) bakery products. This experience has neither been validated nor explained on a molecular level. Therefore, we performed blinded wheat and spelt bread challenge in this patient group. Twenty-four adults with a history of NCWS but suspected spelt tolerance were challenged in a single-blinded crossover design over six weeks with six different study breads each at 300 g per day for 4 days followed by a washout phase of 3 days. Study breads comprised spelt and wheat breads made either after a traditional (T) or a current (C) recipe, resulting in four bread types plus a gluten-free bread with 1.5% added oligosaccharides (+FODMAP) and a gluten-free bread with 5% added wheat gluten (+Gluten). The main outcome parameter was the Irritable Bowel Syndrome—Severity Scoring System, which was higher than self-estimated by the participants after spelt bread consumption (p = 0.002 for T; p = 0.028 for C) and lower for wheat bread (p = 0.052 for T; p = 0.007 for C), resulting in no difference between wheat and spelt bread tolerance. The +FODMAP bread was better tolerated than both T breads (p = 0.003 for spelt; p = 0.068 for wheat) and equally well tolerated as both C breads and +Gluten breads after normalization to the washout scores. Neither signs of inflammation nor markers for intestinal barrier integrity were influenced. Our data do not confirm, on an objective basis, the differences in expected symptoms resulting from wheat and spelt products, suggesting a strong nocebo effect for wheat and a placebo effect for spelt. Full article

Spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. spelta Thell.) is an ancient wheat that was widely cultivated in the past. This species derived from a cross between emmer wheat (T. turgidum spp. dicoccum Schrank em. Thell.) and Aegilops tauschii Coss. Its main origin was in the Fertile Crescent (Near East), with a secondary center of origin in Europe due to a second hybridization event between emmer and hexaploid wheat. This species has been neglected in most of Europe; however, the desire for more natural foods has driven a revival in interest. Iberian spelt is classified as a geographical group differing to the rest of European spelt. In this review, the particularities, genetic diversity and current situation of Spanish spelt, mainly for quality traits, are discussed. Full article

Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder that occurs in genetically predisposed individuals after consuming prolamins from some cereals. Although the products available for celiac subjects have increased significantly in quality and quantity over the last few decades, research still focuses on identifying new ingredients to improve the nutritional, sensorial and functional qualities of gluten-free products. In terms of toxicity for people with celiac disease, there is a wide variability between ancient and modern grains. The most contradictory results are related to the role of oats in the gluten-free diet. In order to clarify the role of minor cereals (such as oat) and ancient grains in the diets of celiac patients, this review discusses recent in vitro and in vivo studies performed on those cereals for which the toxicity for celiac subjects is still controversial. According to in vivo studies, selected oat varieties could be tolerated by celiac patients. On the other hands, although some wheat-ancient grains (Triticum monococcum, Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta and Kamut^®) showed a reduced in vitro toxicity, to date, these grains are still considered toxic for celiac patients. Contradictory results underline the importance of studying the safety of “unusual” cereals in more detail. Full article

The best pasta raw material is durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum (Desf.) Husn.). Recently, old wheat species have also attracted interest. The aim of the study was to evaluate their usefulness for industrial pasta production. The technological characteristics of grains and the organoleptic characteristics of pasta obtained from hulled emmer (T. turgidum subsp. dicoccum) and spelt (T. aestivum ssp. spelta) were determined and compared to durum wheat, as a standard pasta raw material, and common wheat (T. aestivum). All wheats were grown under identical conditions. The hardness of kernels was assessed using the practical size index, wheat hardness index, torque moment, milling work of 50 g of flour, semolina yield, and starch damage. The technological and nutritional values of semolina, i.e., protein and ash content, wet gluten yield and quality, and falling number, were determined. Moreover, the organoleptic characteristics of cooked pasta were analysed in terms of appearance, colour, taste, smell, and consistency. The milling parameters of emmer were comparable to those of durum wheat; moreover, the content of protein, gluten, and ash was higher in emmer. Spelt was found to be similar to common wheat. Hulled wheats, especially emmer, show good quality parameters and can be an alternative raw material for industrial pasta production. Full article

The role of the microbiome in the root zone is critically important for plants. However, the mechanism by which plants can adapt to environmental constraints, especially water deficit, has not been fully investigated to date, while the endophytic core microbiome of the roots of spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.) grown under drought conditions has received little attention. In this study, we hypothesize that differences in the endophytic core of spelt and common wheat root microbiomes can explain the variations in the growth and photosynthetic activity of those plants, especially under drought conditions. Our greenhouse experimental design was completely randomized in a 2 × 4 × 3 factorial scheme: two water regime levels (well-watered and drought), three spelt varieties (T. aestivum ssp. spelta L.: ‘Badenstern’, ‘Badenkrone’ and ‘Zollernspelz’ and one wheat variety: T. aestivum ssp. vulgare L: ‘Dakotana’) and three mycorrhizal levels (autoclaved soil inoculation with Rhizophagus irregularis, control (autoclaved soil) and natural inoculation (non-autoclaved soil—microorganisms from the field). During the imposed stress period, relative water content (RWC), leaf chlorophyll fluorescence, gas exchange and water use efficiency (WUE) were measured. Microscopic observations of the root surface through fungi isolation and identification were conducted. Our results indicate that ‘Badenstern’ was the most drought tolerant variety, followed by ‘Zollernspelz’ and ‘Badenkrone,’ while the common wheat variety ‘Dakotana’ was the most drought sensitive. Inoculation of ‘Badenstern’ with the mycorrhizal fungi R. irregularis contributed to better growth performance as evidenced by increased whole plant and stalk dry matter accumulation, as well as greater root length and volume. Inoculation of ‘Zollernspelz’ with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) enhanced the photochemical efficiency of Photosystem II and significantly improved root growth under drought conditions, which was confirmed by enhanced aboveground biomass, root dry weight and length. This study provides evidence that AMF have the potential to be beneficial for plant growth and dry matter accumulation in spelt varieties grown under drought conditions. Full article

The objective of this study is to compare the yields and qualities of the hulled wheats emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schübl.) and spelt (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. spelta) with the commonly cultivated naked wheats common wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. vulgare) and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.). Three years of field experiments were carried out from 2015 to 2017 in the Lubelskie province (Poland) on rendzina soils. The experimental results indicate that the hulled wheats, even when cultivated with advanced technology, produced lower yields compared to the common and durum wheats (reduced by 30–56%). In spite of their lower yields, emmer and spelt retained appropriate technological parameters. Higher ash, protein, and wet gluten yields were characteristic of the hulled wheats; however, the high gluten spread of emmer (13.3 mm) may limit its application as a raw material in some food processes. In summary, hulled wheat species can be recommended for modern agricultural production as an alternative source of high-quality materials for the agricultural and food industries. Full article

The aim of this study was to evaluate the nutritional value of wholemeal bread prepared from the flour of spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) that was enriched by the addition of freeze-dried spelt grain (at proportions of 4%, 8%, and 12%, respectively, in relation to the flour weight). The spelt grain used in the study was harvested at the milk dough stage (the so-called green grain). Green spelt grain was characterized by a significantly higher content of minerals namely P, Mg, Ca and Zn compared to ripe spelt grain. Additionally, it contained significantly higher amounts of amino acids (Asp, Thr, Ser, Gly, Ala, Cys, Val, Met, Ile, Leu, Phe, Lys), lipids, as well as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and omega-3 and omega-9 acids. However, it had a lower content of palmitic, stearic, and linoleic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and omega-6 acids. The results showed that the nutritional value of bread was improved by the green spelt grain, however the ω6/ω3 ratio in bread enriched with green spelt grain was slightly less favorable than in control bread. Among all the products tested, bread enriched with a 12% proportion of green spelt grain was characterized by the highest content of almost all the amino acids (except for Pro, Cys, and Met), as well as in Mg, Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe. In addition, overall acceptability of this bread was the highest. Bread enriched with 8% of green grain contained the highest amount of P, Ca, Pro, linoleic acid, PUFA, and ω 6 acids, while bread enriched with 4% of green spelt grain had the highest content of palmitic acid and saturated fatty acids. Full article