Search Results (1,686)

Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been an important foodborne pathogen causing severe disease in humans worldwide. It is challenging to control E. coli O157:H7 due to its intrinsic acid resistance, ability to survive in various environments, and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Recent research showed that phages are promising antibacterial agents. A phage (Φ241) infecting 48 E. coli O157:H7 strains from various sources was previously isolated from an industrial cucumber fermentation at pH 3.7 and 5% NaCl. The efficacy of phage Φ241 infection was evaluated in this study in four representative model food systems (beef broth, cucumber juice, cucumber juice supplemented with NaCl, and apple juice). Pronounced differences in phage effectiveness were found in the tested food systems, and impacted by pH, salinity, and multiplicity of infection. The potential of this phage is evident in beef broth and cucumber juice, where 4- to 6-log reduction in host concentration was achieved within 3 to 5 h. However, apple juice (pH 3.55) completely inhibited host growth and phage infection. Overall, the study shows the high potential of Φ241 as an antibacterial agent to improve food safety. Future research will incorporate a cocktail of phages targeting E. coli O157:H7 to mitigate phage resistance development. Full article

In the context of chlorate’s application as a cathodic reagent of power sources, the mechanism of its electroreduction has been studied in electrochemical cells under diffusion-limited current conditions with operando spectrophotometric analysis. Prior to electrolysis, the electrolyte is represented as an aqueous mixed NaClO₃ + H₂SO₄ solution (both components being non-electroactive within the potential range under study), without addition of any external electroactive catalyst. In the course of potentiostatic electrolysis, both the cathodic current and the ClO₂ concentration demonstrate a temporal evolution clearly pointing to an autocatalytic mechanism of the process (regions of quasi-exponential growth and of rapid diminution, separated by a narrow maximum). It has been substantiated that its kinetic mechanism includes only one electrochemical step (chlorine dioxide reduction), coupled with two chemical steps inside the solution phase: comproportionation of chlorate anion and chlorous acid, as well as chlorous acid disproportionation via two parallel routes. The corresponding set of kinetic equations for the concentrations of Cl-containing solute components (ClO₃⁻, ClO₂, HClO₂, and Cl⁻) has been solved numerically in a dimensionless form. Optimal values of the kinetic parameters have been determined via a fitting procedure with the use of non-stationary experimental data for the ClO₂ concentration and for the current, taking into account the available information from the literature on the parameters of the chlorous acid disproportionation process. Predictions of the proposed kinetic mechanism agree quantitatively with these experimental data for both quantities within the whole time range, including the three characteristic regions: rapid increase, vicinity of the maximum, and rapid decrease. Full article

The biocontrol strain Streptomyces pratensis S10 was isolated from tomato leaf mold. The fermentation broth of strain S10 can effectively control Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by Fusarium graminearum. Enhancing antifungal activity is essential in advancing its commercialization. In this study, we aimed to improve the antifungal activity of S10 by integrating fermentation optimization and genetic engineering. Single-factor experiments revealed that seven parameters, namely corn flour, yeast extract, NaNO₃, CaCO₃, K₂HPO₄, KCl, ZnSO₄·7H₂O, and MnCl₂·4H₂O, were identified as significant components. A Plackett–Burman design (PDB) indicated that corn flour, yeast extract, and ZnSO₄·7H₂O were the most critical variables affecting its inhibitory activity and mycelial biomass. The fermentation medium was further determined based on the steepest climbing experiment and a Box–Behnken design (BBD), and the mycelial dry weight of S. pratensis S10 was improved from 2.13 g/L in Gauze’s synthetic No. 1 medium to 8.12 g/L in the optimized medium, closely aligning with the predicted value of 7.98 g/L. Under the optimized medium, the antifungal rate of F. graminearum increased from 67.36 to 82.2%. The spore suspension of strain S10 cultured in the optimized medium substantially improved its biocontrol efficacy against FHB. Moreover, disruption of the key gene tetR led to increased antifungal activity of strain S10 against F. graminearum. Importantly, the antifungal activity of ΔtetR was greatly increased under the optimized fermentation medium. This study suggests that the gene tetR negatively regulates bioactive compound biosynthesis, and the optimized medium provides favorable conditions for the growth of S10. These observations establish an extended basis for the large-scale bioactive metabolite secretion of S. pratensis S10, providing a strong foundation for sustainable FHB management in agriculture. Full article

Soil salinity severely impairs plant growth, and polyamines such as spermidine (Spd) are known to bolster stress tolerance by acting as osmoprotectants and signaling molecules. Using TiO₂ enrichment, iTRAQ quantification, and bioinformatics analysis, we identified 870 proteins and 157 differentially phosphorylated proteins. Functional annotation showed that salt stress activated key components of the Salt Overly Sensitive pathway, particularly serine threonine kinases (SOS2) and Ca²⁺ binding sensors (SOS3). Among thirty-six SOS-associated kinases detected, eight SOS2 isoforms, four MAPKs, and two SOS3 homologs were significantly upregulated by NaCl, and Spd further increased the phosphorylation of six SOS2 proteins and one SOS3 protein under salt stress, with no detectable effect on SOS1. qRT PCR revealed enhanced expression of MAPKs and calcium-dependent protein kinases, suggesting a phosphorylation-centered model in which Spd amplifies Ca²⁺-mediated SOS signaling and reinforces ion homeostasis through coordinated transcriptional priming and post-translational control. Additional, proteins involved in protein synthesis and turnover (ribosomal subunits, translation initiation factors, ubiquitin–proteasome components), DNA replication and transcription, and RNA processing showed differential expression under salt or Spd treatment. Central metabolic pathways were reprogrammed, involving glycolysis, the TCA cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway, as well as ammonium transporters and amino acid biosynthetic enzymes. These findings indicate that exogenous Spd regulated phosphorylation-mediated networks involving the SOS signaling pathway, protein homeostasis, and metabolism, thereby enhancing cucumber salt tolerance. Full article

Pyridyl-thiourea complexes of formula [(Cym)MCl(κ²N_py,S-H₂NNS)][SbF₆] (Cym = η⁶-p-MeC₆H₄iPr; H₂NNS = N-(p-tolyl)-N′-(2-pyridylmethyl)thiourea); M = Ru (1), Os (2)) were synthesized by reacting the corresponding metal dimers [{(Cym)MCl}₂(μ-Cl)₂] with H₂NNS in the presence of NaSbF₆. Subsequent chloride abstraction with AgSbF₆, followed by NH deprotonation using NaHCO₃, afforded the cationic complexes [(Cym)M(κ³N_py,N_amide,S-HNNS)][SbF₆] (M = Ru (5a), (5c); M = Os (6a, 6c)) and [(Cym)M(κ²N_amide,S-HNNS)][SbF₆] (M = Ru (5b); M = Os (6b)). The proposed structures for the prepared compounds are based on NMR data. Complexes 5a, 5b, and 6a, 6b evolve to the thermodynamically more stable species 5c and 6c, respectively, in which the deprotonated ligand HNNS adopts a κ³N_py,N_amide,S coordination mode. Complexes 5c and 6c activate H₂, behaving as frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) species, and catalyze (5c and/or 6c) the hydrogenation of polar multiple bonds, including the C=N bonds of N-benzylideneaniline and quinoline, the C=C bond of methyl acrylate, and the C=O bond of 2,2,2-trifluoroacetophenone. Full article

In order to investigate the effect of Zataria multiflora Bioss. extract and nanoextract on morphophysiological and phytochemical indices, yield, and essential oil compositions of basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. Genovese) under salinity stress (0, 25, 50, and 100 mM NaCl), an experiment was conducted as a split-plot design in a basic block with complete randomization and three replications. In the treatment without salinity, nanoextract increased the shoot fresh weight by 34.28%, and regular extract increased it by 8.35% compared to the 0 NaCl without extract. In the treatment without salinity stress, nanoextract decreased the Na content by 17%, and regular extract decreased it by 5%; nanoextract increased the K content by 22.93%, and regular extract increased it by 9.05% compared to the 0 NaCl without extract, respectively. In all salinity concentrations applied, nanoextract showed lower sodium accumulation and higher potassium accumulation rate than regular extract and treatment without extract at the same salinity concentration. The highest total phenols were observed in the 100 mM salinity treatment in both nanoextract and regular extract of Z. multiflora, followed by the 50 mM salinity treatment—nano extract, with 12.33, 11.17, and 10.01 mg GA g⁻¹ FW, respectively. In the non-saline stress treatment, nanoextract increased the proline content by 125%, and regular extract increased it by 79.16% compared to the 0 NaCl without extract. In the treatment without salinity stress, the nano extract increased the level of PAL enzyme by 16.66% and the regular extract by 8.33% compared to the 0 NaCl without extract. The highest antioxidant activity was observed in the 100 mM salinity treatment in both nano extract and regular extract of Z. multiflora, followed by the 50 mM salinity treatment and nano extract with 31.86, 30.60, and 28.21%, respectively. In this study, the results of essential oil analysis indicated the identification of 39 compounds in which linalool, eugenol, carotenoid, methyl chavicol, A-Humulene, and menthol were identified as the main compounds. Among all treatments, Z. multiflora nanoextract, while moderating the effects of stress, showed the highest efficiency in improving the morphophysiological and biochemical traits and essential oil content and secondary metabolites of O. basilicum L. var. Genovese. Full article

Climate change has intensified extreme weather events and accelerated soil salinization, posing serious threats to crop yield and quality. Salinity stress, now affecting about 20% of irrigated lands, is expected to worsen due to rising temperatures and sea levels. At the same time, the global population is projected to exceed 9 billion by 2050, demanding a 70% increase in food production (UN, 2019; FAO). Agriculture, responsible for 34% of global greenhouse gas emissions, urgently needs sustainable solutions. Microbial inoculants, known as “plant probiotics,” offer a promising eco-friendly alternative by enhancing crop resilience and reducing environmental impact. In this study, we evaluated the plant growth-promoting (PGP) traits and melatonin-producing capacity of Bacillus aerius EH2-5. To assess its efficacy under salt stress, soybean seedlings at the VC stage were inoculated with EH2-5 and subsequently subjected to salinity stress using 150 mM and 100 mM NaCl treatments. Plant growth parameters, the expression levels of salinity-related genes, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes were measured to determine the microbe’s role in promoting plant growth and mitigating salt-induced oxidative stress. Here, our study shows that the melatonin-synthesizing Bacillus aerius EH2-5 (7.48 ng/mL at 24 h after inoculation in Trp spiked LB media) significantly improved host plant (Glycine max L.) growth, biomass, and photosynthesis and reduced oxidative stress during salinity stress conditions than the non-inculcated control. Whole genome sequencing of Bacillus aerius EH2-5 identified key plant growth-promoting and salinity stress-related genes, including znuA, znuB, znuC, and zur (zinc uptake); ptsN, aspA, and nrgB (nitrogen metabolism); and phoH and pstS (phosphate transport). Genes involved in tryptophan biosynthesis and transport, such as trpA, trpB, trpP, and tspO, along with siderophore-related genes yusV, yfhA, and yfiY, were also detected. The presence of multiple stress-responsive genes, including dnaK, dps, treA, cspB, srkA, and copZ, suggests EH2-5′s genomic potential to enhance plant tolerance to salinity and other abiotic stresses. Inoculation with Bacillus aerius EH2-5 significantly enhanced soybean growth and reduced salt-induced damage, as evidenced by increased shoot biomass (29%, 41%), leaf numbers (12% and 13%), and chlorophyll content (40%, 21%) under 100 mM and 150 mM NaCl compared to non-inoculated plants. These results indicate EH2-5′s strong potential as a plant growth-promoting and salinity stress-alleviating rhizobacterium. The EH2-5 symbiosis significantly enhanced a key ABA biosynthesis enzyme-related gene NCED3, dehydration responsive transcription factors DREB2A and NAC29 salinity stresses (100 mM and 150 mM). Moreover, the reduced expression of peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) by 16%, 29%, and 24%, respectively, and decreased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydroxy peroxidase (H₂O₂) by 12% and 23% were observed under 100 mM NaCl compared to non-inoculated plants. This study demonstrated that Bacillus aerius EH2-5, a melatonin-producing strain, not only functions effectively as a biofertilizer but also alleviates plant stress in a manner comparable to the application of exogenous melatonin. These findings highlight the potential of utilizing melatonin-producing microbes as a viable alternative to chemical treatments. Therefore, further research should focus on enhancing the melatonin biosynthetic capacity of EH2-5, improving its colonization efficiency in plants, and developing synergistic microbial consortia (SynComs) with melatonin-producing capabilities. Such efforts will contribute to the development and field application of EH2-5 as a promising plant biostimulant for sustainable agriculture. Full article

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are known for their exceptional mechanical properties, particularly their superior wear resistance compared to conventional alloys with similar surface hardness. Rare earth oxides are often used as additives to further improve these characteristics. This study investigates the effects of different CeO₂ (cerium dioxide) concentrations (0.01 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.5 wt.%, and 1.0 wt.%) on the properties of CuAlMnFe alloys produced via powder metallurgy (PM). Various analyses were performed, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), as well as hardness, wear, and corrosion tests. The increase in wear rate is closely related to the formation of precipitates from CeO₂ addition. Improvements in wear resistance and hardness are attributed to the effects of grain refinement and solid solution strengthening due to CeO₂. Specifically, the wear rate increased from 1.5 × 10⁻³ mm³/(Nm) to 3.4 × 10⁻³ mm³/(Nm) with higher CeO₂ content. Additionally, the friction coefficient of the CuAlMnFe alloy was reduced with CeO₂ addition, indicating enhanced frictional properties. The optimal CeO₂ concentration of 0.5% was found to improve grain uniformity, resulting in better wear resistance. Incorporating CeO₂ particles into CuAlMnFe alloy enhances hardness and reduces wear rate when used in appropriate amounts. Additionally, it exhibits superior corrosion resistance, as evidenced by a positive shift in corrosion potential in Tafel measurements in solutions and a decrease in corrosion current density. The C0.5 specimen showed the highest corrosion potential (E_corr, −588 V) and the lowest corrosion current density (i_corr, 6.17 μA/cm²) during electrochemical corrosion in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. Full article

Petroleum hydrocarbon (PH) contamination in groundwater necessitates sustainable remediation solutions. This study develops a novel co-encapsulated composite by embedding steel slag (SS) and sodium persulfate (SPS) within an ethyl cellulose (EC) matrix ((SS + SPS)/EC) for permeable reactive barrier applications. The EC matrix enables controlled release of SPS oxidant and gradual leaching of alkaline components (Ca²⁺/OH⁻) and Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ activators from SS, synergistically sustaining radical generation while buffering pH extremes. Optimized at a 10:7 SS:SPS mass ratio, the composite achieves 66.3% PH removal via dual pathways: (1) sulfate radical (${\mathrm{S}\mathrm{O}}_4^{-}$•) oxidation from Fe²⁺-activated persulfate (S₂${\mathrm{O}}_8^{2-}$ + Fe²⁺→${\mathrm{S}\mathrm{O}}_4^{-}$• + ${\mathrm{S}\mathrm{O}}_4^{2-}$ + Fe³⁺), and (2) direct electron transfer by surface-bound Fe³⁺. In situ material evolution enhances functionality—nitrogen physisorption reveals a 156% increase in surface area and 476% pore volume expansion, facilitating contaminant transport while precipitating stable sulfate minerals (Na₂SO₄, Na₃Fe(SO₄)₃) within pores. Crucially, the composite maintains robust performance under groundwater-relevant conditions: 54% removal at 15 °C (attributed to pH-buffered activation) and >55% efficiency with common interfering anions (Cl⁻, ${\mathrm{H}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{O}}_3^{-}$, 50 mg·L⁻¹). This waste-derived design demonstrates a self-regulating system that concurrently addresses oxidant longevity (≥70 h), geochemical stability (pH 8.5→10.4), and low-temperature activity, establishing a promising strategy for sustainable groundwater remediation. Continuous-flow column validation (60 d, 5 mg·L⁻¹ gasoline) demonstrates sustained >80% removal efficiency and systematically stable effluent pH (9.8–10.2) via alkaline leaching. Full article

Arthrobotrys flagrans is a typical nematode-trapping fungus that captures nematodes by producing three-dimensional networks. FlbD is a DNA-binding protein containing a Myb domain, which plays a significant role in fungal development. However, the biological function of FlbD in nematode-trapping fungi remains unknown. In this study, we analyzed the physicochemical properties and conserved domains of AfFlbD and constructed the AfFlbD knockout strains (ΔAfFlbD) using homologous recombination. Our functional analysis revealed that the mutants produced more cottony aerial mycelia at the colony center. Additionally, the cell length of the mutants was reduced, indicating that AfFlbD regulates cell morphology in A. flagrans. Chemical stress tolerance assays of the mutants demonstrated reduced sensitivity to NaCl and sorbitol stresses but increased sensitivity to SDS and H₂O₂ stresses compared to the WT strain. Interestingly, the mutants spontaneously produced traps, and its pathogenicity to nematodes was significantly enhanced, suggesting that AfFlbD negatively regulates the pathogenicity of A. flagrans. Furthermore, the number of chlamydospores produced by the mutants was markedly reduced, though their morphology remained unchanged. Fluorescence localization analysis showed that AfFlbD localizes to the nuclei of chlamydospores, thereby regulating chlamydospore formation. This study provides important theoretical insights into the biological function of the FlbD transcription factor and offers new perspectives for the application of nematode-trapping fungi as a method of controlling plant-parasitic nematodes. Full article

Agricultural activities and dry climatic conditions promote the evaporation and salinization of groundwater in arid areas. Long-term irrigation alters the groundwater circulation and environment in arid plains, as well as its hydraulic connection with surface water. A comprehensive assessment of groundwater irrigation suitability and its interaction with surface water is essential for water–ecology–agriculture security in arid areas. This study evaluates the irrigation water quality and groundwater–surface water interaction influenced by agricultural activities in a typical arid plain region using hydrochemical and stable isotopic data from 51 water samples. The results reveal that the area of cultivated land increases by 658.9 km² from 2000 to 2023, predominantly resulting from the conversion of bare land. Groundwater TDS (total dissolved solids) value exhibits significant spatial heterogeneity, ranging from 516 to 2684 mg/L. Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, and Na⁺ are the dominant ions in groundwater, with a widespread distribution of brackish water. Groundwater δ¹⁸O values range from −9.4‰ to −5.4‰, with the mean value close to surface water. In total, 86% of the surface water samples are good and suitable for agricultural irrigation, while 60% of shallow groundwater samples are marginally suitable or unsuitable for irrigation at present. Groundwater hydrochemistry is largely controlled by intensive evaporation, water–rock interaction, and agricultural activities (e.g., cultivated land expansion, irrigation, groundwater exploitation, and fertilizers). Agricultural activities could cause shallow groundwater salinization, even confined water deterioration, with an intense and frequent exchange between groundwater and surface water. In order to sustainably manage groundwater and maintain ecosystem stability in arid plain regions, controlling cultivated land area and irrigation water amount, enhancing water utilization efficiency, limiting groundwater exploitation, and fully utilizing floodwater resources would be the viable ways. The findings will help to deepen the understanding of the groundwater quality evolution mechanism in arid irrigated regions and also provide a scientific basis for agricultural water management in the context of extreme climatic events and anthropogenic activities. Full article

This study synthesized FeNiCuAlX high-entropy alloys (HEAs) (where X = Cr, Co, Mn) using arc melting and investigated their high-temperature oxidation behavior in air at 900 °C. The oxidation kinetics of all alloys followed a parabolic rate, with the oxidation rate constants (kp) of FeNiCuAlCr, FeNiCuAlCo, and FeNiCuAlMn being approximately two to three orders of magnitude lower than that of the FeNiCu alloy. Specifically, FeNiCuAlCr exhibited the lowest kp value of 1.72 × 10⁻⁶ mg²·cm⁴/s, which is significantly lower than those of FeNiCuAlCo (3.29 × 10⁻⁶ mg²·cm⁴/s) and FeNiCuAlMn (1.71 × 10⁻⁵ mg²·cm⁴/s). This suggests that the addition of chromium promotes the formation of a dense Al₂O₃/Cr₂O₃ oxide layer, significantly enhancing the oxidation resistance. Furthermore, corrosion resistance was assessed through potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in a 3.5% NaCl solution. FeNiCuAlCr demonstrated exceptional resistance to localized corrosion, as indicated by its low corrosion current density (45.7 μA/cm²) and high pitting potential (−0.21 V), highlighting its superior corrosion performance. Full article

The precise synthesis of non-precious metal single-atom electrocatalysts is crucial for enhancing the yield of highly active reactive oxygen species (ROSs). Conventional oxidation methods, such as Fenton or NaClO processes, suffer from poor efficiency, high energy demand, and secondary pollution. In contrast, heterogeneous electro-Fenton systems based on cascade oxygen reduction reactions (ORRs), which require low operational voltage and cause pollutant degradation through both direct electron transfer and ROS generation, have emerged as a promising alternative. Recent studies showed that carbon cathodes decorated with atomically dispersed transition metals can effectively integrate the excellent conductivity of carbon supports with the tunable surface chemistry of metal centers. However, the electronic structure of active sites intrinsically hinders the simultaneous achievement of high activity and selectivity in cascade ORRs. This review summarizes the advances, specifically from 2020 to 2025, in understanding the mechanism of cascade ORRs and the synthesis of transition metal-based single-atom catalysts in cathode electrocatalysis for efficient wastewater treatment, and discusses the key factors affecting treatment performance. While employing atomically engineered cathodes is a promising approach for energy-efficient wastewater treatment, future efforts should overcome the barriers in active site control and long-term stability of the catalysts to fully exploit their potential in addressing water pollution challenges. Full article

This study evaluated the inhibitory efficacy of sulphur dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, copper sulphate pentahydrate, chlorine-based formulations, a chlorine-free formulation, ethanol, and acetic acid against Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium expansum. An in vitro inhibition test was employed to investigate the inhibitory properties. The results demonstrated different sensitivities of filamentous fungi to the inhibitors. All tested substances displayed fungicidal properties. Sulphur dioxide (40% NH₄HSO₃ solution) inhibited growth at a 4% v/v concentration. No minimum effective concentration was established for H₂O₂; only a 30% w/v solution inhibited P. expansum. CuSO₄·5H₂O completely inhibited fungal growth at 5% w/v solution, with 2.5% w/v also proving effective. For the chlorine-based product, 40% w/v solution (48 g∙L⁻¹ active chlorine) had the most substantial effect, though it only slowed growth, and NaClO solution completely inhibited growth at 2.35 g NaClO per 100 g of product (50% w/v solution). FungiSAN demonstrated fungicidal effects; however, the recommended dose was insufficient for complete inhibition. Ethanol exhibited the lowest efficacy, while the inhibitory threshold for CH₃COOH was found to be a 5% v/v solution. The findings of this study may serve as a basis for informed decision-making when selecting the most suitable product, depending on specific application conditions. Full article

Soil salinization severely limits plant growth and productivity. Mulberry (Morus alba L.), an economically and ecologically important tree, is widely cultivated, yet its salt-tolerance mechanisms at the seedling stage remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of two-year-old mulberry (‘Tailai Sang’) seedlings subjected to six NaCl treatments (0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 300 mmol L⁻¹) for 28 days. Results showed that growth parameters and photosynthetic gas exchange exhibited dose-dependent declines. The reduction in net photosynthetic rate (Pn) was attributed to both stomatal limitations (decreased stomatal conductance) and non-stomatal limitations, as evidenced by a significant decrease in the maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) under high salinity. To cope with osmotic stress, seedlings accumulated compatible solutes, including soluble sugars, proteins, and proline. Critically, mulberry seedlings demonstrated effective ion homeostasis by sequestering Na⁺ in the roots to maintain a high K⁺/Na⁺ ratio in leaves, a mechanism that was compromised above 150 mmol L⁻¹. Concurrently, indicators of oxidative stress—malondialdehyde (MDA) and H₂O₂—rose significantly with salinity, inducing the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, APX, and GR), which peaked at 150 mmol L⁻¹ before declining under extreme stress. A biomass-based LC₅₀ of 179 mmol L⁻¹ NaCl was determined. These findings elucidate that mulberry salt tolerance is a coordinated process involving three key mechanisms: osmotic adjustment, selective ion distribution, and a robust antioxidant defense system. This study establishes an indicative tolerance threshold under controlled conditions and provides a physiological basis for further field-based evaluations of ‘Tailai Sang’ mulberry for cultivation on saline soils. Full article