Search Results (318)

Modification of PLA with functional nanoparticles is a promising approach for imparting new properties to the material. In this work, titanium nanoparticles (Ti NPs) and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) were synthesized by laser ablation and characterized by dynamic light scattering, spectrophotometry, and transmission electron microscopy. The average hydrodynamic diameter of Ti NPs was 12 nm, while that of TiO₂ NPs was 24 nm; both dispersions possessed a positive zeta potential (23–27 mV) and spherical morphology. L-PLA composite films containing 0.1 wt.% Ti NPs or TiO₂ NPs were obtained by solution casting. Atomic force and modulation-interference microscopy confirmed the uniform distribution of nanoparticles within the polymer matrix, although partial aggregation was observed. The introduction of TiO₂ NPs increased the water contact angle. Mechanical testing revealed a significant reinforcing effect: the addition of 0.1 wt.% NPs increased the Young’s modulus by 62–68% and the ultimate tensile strength by 16–18% while maintaining a ductile fracture pattern with elongation at break up to ~8%. Both types of composites generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) in aqueous solutions: Ti NPs increased H₂O₂ production by 5.5 times and TiO₂ NPs by 4.9 times, and they also induced the formation of hydroxyl radicals. The accumulation of 8-oxoguanine in DNA and long-lived oxidized protein species confirmed the materials’ ability to cause oxidative damage to biomacromolecules. For E. coli, growth inhibition reached 40.5% (for composites with Ti NPs) and 71% (for composites with TiO₂ NPs). The effect was even more pronounced for S. aureus, where inhibition levels were approximately 70% and 80%, respectively; flow cytometry confirmed the strong bactericidal effect, showing that materials containing TiO₂ NPs increased the proportion of dead cells to 25% for E. coli and ~68% for S. aureus. Cytotoxicity assessment on human fibroblasts (HSF) demonstrated the high biocompatibility of neat L-PLA and composites with Ti NPs (viability > 95%) and with TiO₂ NPs (viability ~93%). The obtained results indicate that L-PLA-based composites with Ti NPs and TiO₂ NPs exhibit pronounced ROS-mediated antibacterial activity without additional UV irradiation. These findings position these materials as highly promising candidates for active biodegradable food packaging to extend shelf-life and for biomedical devices, such as wound dressings and implants, where reducing the risk of bacterial colonization is critical. Full article

Shear stress is a significant consideration in 3D bioprinting systems, with implications for cell viability and behaviour. This study hypothesised that relevant levels of shear stress would be generated during the process of 3D bioprinting human nasoseptal chondrocytes in a nanocellulose alginate bioink, with implications for cell viability and chondrogenic gene expression. Through a combined approach of in silico modelling and in vitro testing, we assessed chondrocyte viability and gene expression immediately within the first 72 h post-printing. Cell viability was determined using live–dead, alamarBlue and lactate dehydrogenase assays immediately and 24 h post-printing compared to cell-only and unprinted cell–biomaterial controls. Gene expression analysis of Type 2 collagen, SOX9, aggrecan and alkaline phosphatase gene expression was performed 4 h and 72 h post-printing. Computational fluid dynamics predicted a shear stress of 292 Pa and maximum fluid velocity of 19 mm/s during the bioprinting process. No statistically significant cell death or cell lysis was detected between groups immediately post-printing; however, statistically significant chondrocyte cell death was observed at 24 h in the printed group (p = 0.047). Moreover, the bioprinting process evoked a transient initial rise in both chondrogenic (SOX9, aggrecan) and osteogenic gene expression (ALP) with a marked suppression in type 2 collagen expression at 72 h (0.05, p = 0.0005), indicating biological effects evoked by shear stress during printing. This study highlights the importance of optimising the bioprinting process to facilitate low shear stress conditions for durable cartilage tissue engineering. Full article

Neural regeneration requires an optimal environment, including structural, chemical, mechanical, and electrical properties. Alginate (Alg) and graphene oxide (GO) are promising biomaterials for nerve tissue engineering, as Alg provides biocompatibility and hydrogel formation, while GO enhances mechanical strength and conductivity. For this study, GO was synthesized using the modified Hummer’s method, and Alg–GO scaffolds with varying GO concentrations were developed. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the successful incorporation of GO into the Alg matrix, while UV–Vis and photoluminescence analyses demonstrated GO-induced modifications of the optical properties. Thermal analysis revealed improved stability with increasing GO content, whereas swelling tests showed enhanced water uptake and retention. Conductivity measurements indicated a clear improvement in electrical conductivity, particularly at moderate GO concentrations. SEM imaging confirmed a homogeneous distribution of GO within the Alg matrix, with structural uniformity across all samples. Cytocompatibility was assessed using SH–SY5Y neuroblastoma cells through MTT, LDH, and LIVE/DEAD assays. All composites supported cell attachment, viability, and proliferation, with GO concentrations up to 6% promoting optimal cell growth without inducing cytotoxicity. In contrast, excessive GO content (9%) resulted in reduced proliferation, although biocompatibility was maintained. These results highlight the potential of Alg–GO scaffolds as promising candidates for neural tissue engineering. The findings demonstrate the potential of Alg–GO scaffolds as advanced biomaterials for regenerative medicine. Future research should focus on in vivo evaluations to confirm their therapeutic applicability. Full article

The persistence of latent HIV-1 reservoirs in individuals on antiretroviral therapy (ART) remains a major barrier to cure, necessitating strategies such as “shock and kill” using latency-reversing agents (LRAs). However, current LRAs show limited clinical efficacy, highlighting the need for novel interventions. This study evaluated the in vitro latency-reversing potential of Product Nkabinde (PN) and Gnidia sericocephala using J-Lat A2 (subtype B) and J-Lat C clones T66 and T17 (subtype C) cells. Cell viability was assessed using flow cytometry with Live/Dead dye. Reactivation potential was further tested in combination with established LRAs: panobinostat, SAHA, and TNF-α. G. sericocephala induced dose-dependent latency reversal, with 26.1% of J-Lat A2 and 15.8% of J-Lat T66 cells GFP-positive at 106 µg/mL (p = 0.0001). Co-treatment with LRAs enhanced reactivation—34.6% with SAHA and 87.2% with TNF-α in J-Lat A2 cells, and 56.9% with SAHA and 65.4% with TNF-α in J-Lat T66 cells (p = 0.0001)—while maintaining cell viability above 90%. PN showed minimal activity (≤1.3% GFP-positive) and no effect in combination assays. Fractional inhibitory concentration index analysis revealed no synergistic interactions. Ex vivo, PN and G. sericocephala induced limited increases in HIV-1 gag RNA without substantial cytotoxicity. These findings demonstrate that G. sericocephala effectively reverses HIV-1 latency and potentiates TNF-α-induced reactivation, supporting its potential as a plant-derived LRA for future “shock and kill” HIV-1 cure strategies. Full article

The first step to selecting interesting lactic acid bacteria for commercial use is testing their resistance to different physicochemical stresses. In this study, we evaluated the viability of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus durans, obtained from two traditional fermented cheeses, subjected to several stresses (thermal, osmotic, acidic, alkaline, oxidative, detergent, and alcoholic). The assessment of cell viability was conducted via flow cytometry (FCM) combined with nucleic-acid double staining (NADS) and was compared to the conventional plate count method (CFU). The findings from the two approaches indicated that Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus durans demonstrated a substantial proportion of viable cells following exposure to osmotic, thermal, and acidic stress. The alkaline stress treatment does not diminish the proportion of viable cells. Both strains exhibited extensive sensitivity to SDS, oxidative stress, and experienced total cell death under alcoholic stress. We observed a satisfactory correlation between cell viability as measured by FCM and CFU under all stress conditions. These data demonstrate the existence of indigenous strains of Enterococcus spp. that exhibit notable stress resistance. FCM for viability enumeration is better than the conventional plate counting method due to its rapid results and precision, which offer an effective evaluation of live, dead, and permeabilised cells. This technique holds promise for physiological state research in dairy applications to evaluate the quality of fermented products and the viable cell count for probiotic manufacturing. Full article

Bacterial infections remain a major challenge to human health, especially in wound healing, where they can cause prolonged inflammation, delayed recovery, and severe complications. Current research is increasingly focused on developing innovative antimicrobial materials capable of overcoming the limitations of conventional antibiotics, whose effectiveness has declined due to the rise in bacterial resistance. Among the various alternatives, silver nanoparticles have gained particular attention for their broad-spectrum antibacterial properties and have already been successfully applied in the functionalization of commercial wound dressings. The aim of this study was to optimize the functionalization of commercial cotton gauzes based on in situ UV-assisted reduction of silver nanoparticles, reducing methanol usage and identifying the minimal silver nitrate precursor concentration to achieve antimicrobial efficacy while maintaining biocompatibility. Different precursor concentrations were then evaluated through cytocompatibility assays (MTT, Live/Dead, and scratch tests on fibroblasts) and antimicrobial analyses against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus (including an antibiotic-resistant strain), and Candida albicans. The results demonstrated that a 0.5% w/w silver nitrate concentration provided strong antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity without compromising textile properties or cytocompatibility. Furthermore, this optimized process reduced material waste, highlighting its potential for scalable production of antimicrobial wound dressings. Full article

Wound dressing coverages (WDC) play a key role in protecting skin lesions and preventing infection. Polymeric membranes have been widely explored as WDC due to their ability to incorporate bioactive agents, including antimicrobial nanoparticles and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In this study, polycaprolactone (PCL)-based membranes functionalized with titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) and ibuprofen (IBP) were fabricated using a film manufacturing approach, and their structural and biocompatibility profiles were evaluated. The membranes were characterized by SEM, FTIR and XPS. Bands at 1725 cm⁻¹, 2950 cm⁻¹, 2955 cm⁻¹, 2865 cm⁻¹ and 510 cm⁻¹ proved molecular stability of reagents during manufacture. In SEM, the control shows the flattest surface, while the PCL-IBP and PCL-IBP-TiO₂ NPs groups had increased rugosity. In vitro biocompatibility was evaluated using human fetal osteoblasts (hFOB). On day 3, the cell adhesion response of hFOB seeded in PCL-IBP and PCL-IBP-TiO₂ NPs groups showed the biggest absorbances (p = 0.0014 and p = 0.0491, respectively). On day 7 PCL-IBP group had lower lectin binding than the control (p = 0.007) and the PCL-IBP-TiO₂ NPs (p = 0.015) membranes, but no evidence of cytotoxicity was observed in any group. Furthermore, the Live/Dead test adds more biocompatibility evidence to conveniently discriminate between live and dead cells. The PCL polymeric membrane elaborated in this study may confer antiseptic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, making these membranes ideal for skin lesions. Full article

Cannabinoids have been shown to have effective antibacterial applications. With the limitations of current intracanal endodontic medicaments and the rise of bacterial resistance, it is important to investigate novel treatment strategies for endodontic infections. The aim of this study was to test the antibacterial efficacy of cannabinoids on bacteria in persistent endodontic infections: Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus mutans, and Fusobacterium nucleatum. Planktonic bacteria were exposed to a negative control (no exposure), a positive control (3% NaOCl), and the experimental groups Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabinol (CBN), and Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) were also investigated. Biofilms were cultured and treated with cannabinoids. A crystal violet assay (CVA) and live/dead analysis assessed the biofilm degradation and inhibition, respectively. A statistical analysis was performed using an ANOVA. CBD, CBN, and THC reached a MIC for both E. faecalis and S. mutans in planktonic forms. The MBC was found for the tested cannabinoids on planktonic E. faecalis. No MBC was found for S. mutans. The live/dead analysis of E. faecalis and S. mutans biofilms showed a decrease in the viability of the biofilm with an increased cannabinoid concentration. The CVA revealed that cannabinoids only degrade the E. faecalis biofilm. Planktonic F. nucleatum had no MIC for tested cannabinoids. Cannabinoids have inhibitory effects on E. faecalis and S. mutans in the planktonic and biofilm states. No inhibitory effects of F. nucleatum were found at tested concentrations of all three cannabinoids. The findings suggest that cannabinoids have distinct antibacterial effects on certain pathogens associated with persistent endodontic infections. Full article

The issue of antibiotic resistance is becoming increasingly severe, urgently requiring the development of new antibacterial strategies. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has gradually emerged as a promising alternative due to its spatiotemporal controllability, low risk of drug resistance, and broad-spectrum antibacterial properties. However, most existing photosensitizers (PSs) are hydrophobic, which limits their application efficiency in PDT. To address this problem, we designed and synthesized a water-soluble perylene diimide derivative (PDICN-CBn) as a photosensitizer. By introducing quaternary ammonium salt groups, its water solubility was improved, and antibacterial activity was enhanced. Subsequently, PDICN-CBn was assembled into silk fibroin/polylactic acid (SF/PLA) nanofibrous membranes via electrospinning technology, successfully constructing a visible-light-responsive ternary composite nanofibrous membrane (SF/PLA@PDICN-CBn). Using various characterization methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the microstructure, chemical composition, and structural characteristics of the nanofibrous membranes were systematically analyzed, verifying the successful synthesis of the photosensitizer and its assembly into the nanofibrous membranes. In the reactive oxygen species (ROS) experiment, electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra showed that PDICN-CBn efficiently generated singlet oxygen (¹O₂), superoxide anion (·O₂⁻), and hydroxyl radical (·OH) under visible light irradiation, confirming its ability to produce different types of ROS through both type I and type II photodynamic reactions. In the antibacterial experiments, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) were selected for a series of tests, including plate-counting antibacterial assays, bacterial live/dead staining, and SEM observation of morphology. The results showed that 8 μg/mL of PDICN-CBn effectively destroyed the bacterial cell membrane structure and killed bacteria (bactericidal rate > 95%) after 2 h of visible light irradiation. This work successfully developed a novel visible-light-responsive SF/PLA@PDICN-CBn nanofibrous membrane with a dual antibacterial system combining photodynamic and electrostatic adsorption antibacterial properties, providing new ideas and methods for the design and development of photodynamic antibacterial materials. The prepared nanofibrous membrane has potential application values in fields such as wound dressings and medical protective materials and is expected to provide strong support for solving clinical infection problems. Full article

This study aimed to engineer nanofibrous scaffolds that prioritize architecture, rather than relying solely on the drug, to achieve reproducible, long-acting local therapies. Cotton-wool-like fiber, three-dimensional (3D) poly(L-lactic acid)/polyethene glycol (PLLA/PEG) blend scaffolds were fabricated using solution blow spinning (SBS) as a customizable encapsulation platform for controlled antibiotic release. Morphological and wettability analyses were performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and pendant-drop contact angle measurements, respectively. Fiber diameters were quantified using ImageJ. The chemical composition and thermal behavior were investigated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In vitro, assays were conducted to assess the antimicrobial activity of vancomycin-loaded scaffolds against Staphylococcus aureus (disk diffusion method), as well as their cytocompatibility (Live/Dead assay in Vero cells) and hemocompatibility (ASTM F756-17 hemolysis test). All biological data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA with Tukey’s post-test, Mann–Whitney, and paired t-tests, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. Structural optimization identified PLLA/PEG 85:15 as the most stable composition, producing homogeneous mats with high porosity and rapid wettability. Incorporation of vancomycin (10 wt.%) reduced the fiber diameter (0.23 ± 0.11 µm) compared with unloaded scaffolds (0.32 ± 0.17 µm), indicating drug–polymer interactions that modulated jet elongation. FTIR, DSC, and TGA analyses confirmed polymer miscibility and stabilization of VMC within the fibrous matrix, with no signs of degradation. Drug release exhibited a biphasic profile, with an initial burst during the first 72 h. PLLA/PEG–VMC scaffolds produced larger inhibition zones against S. aureus (18.55 mm ± 1.2 to 6.63 mm ± 0.2 at 120 h) compared with free VMC (12.91 mm ± 3.8 to 4.07 mm ± 0.6291), while blank scaffolds were inactive. Hemolysis remained within the range 2% < PLLA/PEG–VMC < 5%, indicating acceptable hemocompatibility according to ASTM standards. Although VCM-loaded PLLA/PEG scaffolds slightly reduced Vero cell viability, no statistically significant differences were observed compared with the control group. These findings demonstrate that the architecture of nanofibers presents itself as a potential platform for antimicrobial therapy with topical vancomycin in potential applications such as wound dressings or implant coatings. Full article

Electrospun fibrous scaffolds based on cellulose acetate (CA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) are versatile materials with applications spanning diverse fields, but in their pristine form, they typically lack significant inherent antibacterial properties. To address this limitation and expand their utility, this study explored the incorporation of xylitol, a natural antibacterial sugar alcohol, into these polymer matrices to enhance their physicochemical and antimicrobial properties. Electrospinning was employed to fabricate pristine and xylitol-loaded scaffolds with varying xylitol concentrations. Morphological analysis revealed polymer-dependent changes in fiber diameter and porosity. Mechanical testing assessed the impact of xylitol on tensile properties, while thermal analysis investigated alterations in melting temperature and crystallinity. The antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was evaluated using WST assay and live/dead staining. Notably, xylitol significantly enhanced the antibacterial activity against both bacterial species, with a more pronounced and rapid effect observed against S. aureus. The tailored scaffold properties and imparted antimicrobial characteristics highlight the potential of these xylitol-modified electrospun materials: they are easily produced, low-cost, and appropriate for a range of applications (dental applications, filters, masks, wound dressing, and packaging) where preventing bacterial contamination is crucial. Full article

Advances in additive manufacturing have accelerated the development of 3D-printed dental resin composites. These materials contain a higher proportion of organic matrix and less filler than light-cured representatives, which may affect their behavior in the oral environment. This study aimed to evaluate the biological and chemical properties of 3D-printed dental resin composites before and after artificial aging, and to compare them with the light-cured representative. Specimens from a light-cured composite (Omnichroma—OMCR) and two 3D-printed composites (GT Temp PRINT—GTPR; SprintRay CROWN—SPRY) were subjected to aging treatments: unaged (T0) or thermocycled for 5000 (T1) and 10,000 cycles (T2). Biological evaluation was performed using MTT assay and Live/Dead cell fluorescence microscopy using human gingival fibroblasts, whereas Raman spectroscopy analysed materials’ structural changes. Materials exhibited good biocompatibility (>70% cell viability), with OMCR displaying greater variability. OMCR was more susceptible to chemical degradation under thermal stresses than both 3D-printed materials. Tested 3D-printed composites can provide comparable or even superior biological and chemical properties compared to light-cured representative, likely due to optimized resin formulations and post-curing protocols that improve polymer network organization and reduce residual monomer release. These findings support the potential of tested 3D-printed composites for manufacturing dental restorations. Full article

Hydrogels have attracted considerable attention as biomedical materials owing to their distinctive properties; however, improvements in mechanical strength, biodegradability, and biocompatibility remain essential for advanced clinical applications. This study developed a new dual-crosslinked hydrogel based on gelatin (Gel) and dextran (Dex) via sequential aldimine condensation and photopolymerization. Natural Gel and Dex were functionalized to synthesize methacrylated Gel (GelMA) and oxidized Dex (ODex), respectively. An imine-linked network was initially formed between GelMA and ODex via aldimine condensation, followed by a second crosslinked network generated through blue-light-induced free-radical polymerization of GelMA, yielding dual-crosslinked hydrogels (GMODs). ¹H NMR and FT–IR analyses confirmed the successful functionalization and formation of dual-crosslinked structure. The dual-crosslinked network enhanced the thermal stability and water-retaining capacity of the freeze-dried hydrogels (DGMODs) while reducing the surface wettability and equilibrium swelling ratio of GMODs. The maximum compressive strength (σₘ) increased with crosslinking density; GMOD−2, with moderate crosslinking density, remained intact under 85% compressive strain and achieved σₘ of 108.0 kPa. The degradation rate of GMODs was tunable by adjusting the crosslinking density, thereby modulating their drug-release behavior. GMOD−3, possessing the highest crosslinking density, exhibited effective drug-sustained release for up to five weeks. Biological evaluations, including cytotoxicity assays, live/dead cell staining, and hemolysis tests, verified excellent cytocompatibility (cell survival rate > 92%) and minimal hemolysis ratio (<5%). Furthermore, inhibition zone tests preliminarily revealed moderate antibacterial activity for GMOD−1. The GMOD hydrogels exhibited superior compressive robustness, adjustable biodegradability, and excellent biocompatibility, holding great potential for biomedical applications such as sustained drug-delivery system. Full article

This study aimed to assess the biocompatibility and bioactivity of three different silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂] mixtures against human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs). hDPSCs were treated with one of the following medicaments: 2 nm mixture, 5 nm mixture, 10 nm mixture, Ca(OH)₂ alone, and triple antibiotic paste (TAP). Cell viability was evaluated using the Cell Counting Kit-8 and LIVE/DEAD Viability/Cytotoxicity Kit. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were quantified using the 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein diacetate redox probe. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α>, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Mineralization was assessed using Alizarin Red S staining. Data were compared across groups using the Kruskal–Wallis test and within groups using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test (p < 0.05). Ca(OH)₂ alone and the 10 nm mixture demonstrated the highest cell viability and lowest ROS release (p < 0.05), while the 2 nm and 5 nm mixtures resulted in decreased viability and significant morphological distortion of the cells. Ca(OH)₂ alone and the 10 nm mixture comparably demonstrated the highest production of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β1 (p < 0.05), the lowest production of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α (p < 0.05), and the highest ALP release and mineralization (p < 0.05). Within the limitations of this in vitro study, Ca(OH)₂ alone and the 10 nm mixture improved hDPSCs’ viability, proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization. Both illustrated a significantly higher anti-inflammatory response by the residing stem cell population. Full article

Periodontitis is a chronic oral inflammatory disease whose treatment is often hindered by poor drug retention, prolonged therapeutic regimens, and the rise of antibiotic resistance. In this study, we developed a Hydrogel@ZIF-8@metronidazole (Hydrogel@ZIF-8@MNZ) nanocomposite dressing for targeted, sustained, and in situ antimicrobial therapy. This system integrates ZIF-8, a pH-responsive metal–organic framework, with the antimicrobial agent metronidazole (MNZ), encapsulated within a crosslinked hydrogel matrix to enhance stability and retention in the oral environment. Drug release studies demonstrated that MNZ release was significantly accelerated under acidic conditions (pH 5.0), mimicking the periodontal microenvironment. The Hydrogel@ZIF-8 composite achieved a maximum MNZ adsorption capacity of 132.45 mg·g⁻¹, with a spontaneous and exothermic uptake process best described by a pseudo-second-order kinetic model, suggesting chemisorption as the dominant mechanism. The nanoplatform exhibited strong pH-responsive behavior, with enhanced drug release under acidic conditions and potent dose-dependent bactericidal activity against Fusobacterium nucleatum (Fn). At the highest tested concentration, bacterial survival was reduced to approximately 30%, with extensive membrane disruption observed through live/dead fluorescence microscopy. In summary, the stimuli-responsive Hydrogel@ZIF-8@MNZ nanocomposite offers an intelligent and effective therapeutic strategy for periodontitis. By tailoring its action to the disease microenvironment, this platform enables sustained and localized antibacterial therapy, addressing major challenges in the treatment of chronic oral infections. Full article