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Toxins
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Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans
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Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 12580

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Carlo Brera

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Freelancer, Rome, Italy
Interests: risk/exposure assessment of mycotoxins; biomonitoring studies; monitoring plans on mycotoxins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins represent a challenging issue in almost all countries, causing a serious burden from safety, agronomic and economic perspectives. This is due to several factors, such as the agricultural practices adopted, the presence of more risky food habits or the very high levels of unawareness of the risk of these toxic compounds by consumers. However, above all, climate conditions and their changes are the most crucial factors responsible for the growth of some specific fungal genera, such as Aspergillus and Fusarium. Therefore, it is imperative to reduce the exposure of human beings and animals as much as possible, by minimising the presence of these toxic compounds from the field onwards by a systematic adoption of specific preventive methods. Based on this premise, the aim of this Special Issue is to collect innovative updated papers dealing with the exposure of consumers and/or animals to mycotoxins, focusing on possible adverse health outcomes consistent with exposure to mycotoxins and the outputs of tailored monitoring and surveillance, highlighting possible areas, already known or new, of criticalities. This information should help join the three vertices of the triangle of factors underlying the mycotoxin risk, i.e., minimisation, prevention, and exposure.

Dr. Carlo Brera
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • prevention measures
  • exposure assessment
  • adverse health effects
  • vulnerable groups
  • control plans

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 294 KiB  
Article
Exposure Assessment to Deoxynivalenol of Children over 3 Years Deriving from the Consumption of Processed Wheat-Based Products Produced from a Dedicated Flour
by Carlo Brera, Caterina De Santis, Stefania Marzona, Emanuela Gregori, Sabrina Santa Prisco, Maurizio Monti, Gabriele Chilosi and Anna Pantanali
Toxins 2023, 15(10), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15100615 - 16 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1744
Abstract
Wheat-based products are largely consumed by children worldwide. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is known for its acute and chronic toxicity and is the most common contaminant of cereal grains. Since no legal limits are set for DON in wheat-based products and specific foods intended for [...] Read more.
Wheat-based products are largely consumed by children worldwide. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is known for its acute and chronic toxicity and is the most common contaminant of cereal grains. Since no legal limits are set for DON in wheat-based products and specific foods intended for children over 3 years on the market, a high risk of overexposure to this contaminant may emerge. The main objective of the study, conducted in 2018–2019, was to produce a wheat flour intended for children over three years, characterized by a high level of safety in terms of DON content, to be used to produce wheat-derived products. The dedicated flour was produced by adopting tailored procedures like the selection of wheat suppliers, the predetermination of the safe contamination of DON in the final products, and the evaluation of the transfer rate from the wheat flour to derived products (bread, breadsticks, biscuits, plumcake, and focaccia). The results showed that the daily exposure of children was considered to be safe, in a range between 7% (biscuits) and 67% (bread) of DON tolerable daily intake (TDI) and that only by producing a flour characterized by DON levels much lower than those in force, can “safe” products be marketed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans)
11 pages, 544 KiB  
Article
Occurrence and Dietary Exposure Assessment to Enniatin B through Consumption of Cereal-Based Products in Spain and the Catalonia Region
by Jose A. Gallardo, Sonia Marín, Antonio J. Ramos, German Cano-Sancho and Vicente Sanchis
Toxins 2023, 15(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15010024 - 29 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1777
Abstract
Enniatin B (ENNB) is a mycotoxin produced by moulds from the Fusarium genera and its toxic effects are still not fully elucidated, hence a safe reference exposure value has not been established yet. ENNB is the most prevalent emerging mycotoxin and is widely [...] Read more.
Enniatin B (ENNB) is a mycotoxin produced by moulds from the Fusarium genera and its toxic effects are still not fully elucidated, hence a safe reference exposure value has not been established yet. ENNB is the most prevalent emerging mycotoxin and is widely found in cereal-based products, nevertheless, there are no comprehensive exposure assessment studies. For that reason, the aim of this study was to characterise the occurrence of ENNB and estimate the exposure of the Spanish and Catalan populations. A total of 347 cereal-based products were collected in 2019 and were analysed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Consumption data were obtained from the national food consumption surveys (ENALIA) and a regional survey conducted in Catalonia. The global exposure was estimated using deterministic and probabilistic methods. The results showed a high occurrence of close to 100% in all foodstuffs, with a range from 6 to 269 µg/kg, and a strong correlation with the levels of deoxynivalenol. Children aged one–nine years were the most exposed, showing mean estimates in the range 308–324 ng/kg bw/day and 95th percentiles 697–781 ng/kg bw/day. This study stresses the need for further toxicological data to establish reference doses and conclude formal risk assessment, accounting for the co-occurrence with deoxynivalenol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans)
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14 pages, 1490 KiB  
Article
Aflatoxin Contamination of Maize, Groundnut, and Sorghum Grown in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger and Aflatoxin Exposure Assessment
by Titilayo D. O. Falade, Adama Neya, Saïdou Bonkoungou, Karim Dagno, Adamou Basso, Amadou Lamine Senghor, Joseph Atehnkeng, Alejandro Ortega-Beltran and Ranajit Bandyopadhyay
Toxins 2022, 14(10), 700; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14100700 - 12 Oct 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2780
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination of staple crops by Aspergillus flavus and closely related fungi is common across the Sahel region of Africa. Aflatoxins in maize, groundnut, and sorghum collected at harvest or from farmers’ stores within two weeks of harvest from Burkina Faso, Mali, and [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin contamination of staple crops by Aspergillus flavus and closely related fungi is common across the Sahel region of Africa. Aflatoxins in maize, groundnut, and sorghum collected at harvest or from farmers’ stores within two weeks of harvest from Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger were quantified. Thereafter, aflatoxin exposure values were assessed using per capita consumption rates of those crops. Mean aflatoxin concentrations in maize were high, 128, 517, and 659 µg/kg in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, respectively. The estimated probable daily intake (PDI) of aflatoxins from maize ranged from 6 to 69, 29 to 432, and 310 to 2100 ng/kg bw/day in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, respectively. Similarly, mean aflatoxin concentrations in sorghum were high, 76 and 259 µg/kg in Mali and Niger, respectively, with an estimated PDI of 2–133 and 706–2221. For groundnut, mean aflatoxin concentrations were 115, 277, and 628 µg/kg in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, respectively. Aflatoxin exposure values were high with an estimated 9, 28, and 126 liver cancer cases/100,000 persons/year in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, respectively. Several samples were extremely unsafe, exceeding manyfold regulatory levels of diverse countries (up to 2000 times more). Urgent attention is needed across the Sahel for integrated aflatoxin management for public health protection, food and nutrition security, and access to trade opportunities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans)
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Review

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16 pages, 759 KiB  
Review
Possible Mechanisms of the Interplay between Drugs and Mycotoxins—Is There a Possible Impact?
by Orphélie Lootens, An Vermeulen, Siska Croubels, Sarah De Saeger, Jan Van Bocxlaer and Marthe De Boevre
Toxins 2022, 14(12), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14120873 - 14 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2629
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination is a global food safety issue leading to major public health concerns. Repeated exposure to multiple mycotoxins not only has repercussions on human health but could theoretically also lead to interactions with other xenobiotic substances—such as drugs—in the body by altering [...] Read more.
Mycotoxin contamination is a global food safety issue leading to major public health concerns. Repeated exposure to multiple mycotoxins not only has repercussions on human health but could theoretically also lead to interactions with other xenobiotic substances—such as drugs—in the body by altering their pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics. The combined effects of chronic drug use and mycotoxin exposure need to be well understood in order to draw valid conclusions and, in due course, to develop guidelines. The aim of this review is to focus on food contaminants, more precisely on mycotoxins, and drugs. First, a description of relevant mycotoxins and their effects on human health and metabolism is presented. The potential for interactions of mycotoxins with drugs using in vitro and in vivo animal experiments is summarized. Predictive software tools for unraveling mycotoxin–drug interactions are proposed and future perspectives on this emerging topic are highlighted with a view to evaluate associated risks and to focus on precision medicine. In vitro and in vivo animal studies have shown that mycotoxins affect CYP450 enzyme activity. An impact from drugs on mycotoxins mediated via CYP450-enzymes is plausible; however, an impact of mycotoxins on drugs is less likely considering the much smaller dose exposure to mycotoxins. Drugs that are CYP450 perpetrators and/or substrates potentially influence the metabolism of mycotoxins, metabolized via these CYP450 enzymes. To date, very little research has been conducted on this matter. The only statistically sound reports describe mycotoxins as victims and drugs as perpetrators in interactions; however, more analysis on mycotoxin–drug interactions needs to be performed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans)
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11 pages, 315 KiB  
Review
Aflatoxins in Maize: Can Their Occurrence Be Effectively Managed in Africa in the Face of Climate Change and Food Insecurity?
by Queenta Ngum Nji, Olubukola Oluranti Babalola and Mulunda Mwanza
Toxins 2022, 14(8), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080574 - 22 Aug 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3096
Abstract
The dangers of population-level mycotoxin exposure have been well documented. Climate-sensitive aflatoxins (AFs) are important food hazards. The continual effects of climate change are projected to impact primary agricultural systems, and consequently food security. This will be due to a reduction in yield [...] Read more.
The dangers of population-level mycotoxin exposure have been well documented. Climate-sensitive aflatoxins (AFs) are important food hazards. The continual effects of climate change are projected to impact primary agricultural systems, and consequently food security. This will be due to a reduction in yield with a negative influence on food safety. The African climate and subsistence farming techniques favour the growth of AF-producing fungal genera particularly in maize, which is a food staple commonly associated with mycotoxin contamination. Predictive models are useful tools in the management of mycotoxin risk. Mycotoxin climate risk predictive models have been successfully developed in Australia, the USA, and Europe, but are still in their infancy in Africa. This review aims to investigate whether AFs’ occurrence in African maize can be effectively mitigated in the face of increasing climate change and food insecurity using climate risk predictive studies. A systematic search is conducted using Google Scholar. The complexities associated with the development of these prediction models vary from statistical tools such as simple regression equations to complex systems such as artificial intelligence models. Africa’s inability to simulate a climate mycotoxin risk model in the past has been attributed to insufficient climate or AF contamination data. Recently, however, advancement in technologies including artificial intelligence modelling has bridged this gap, as climate risk scenarios can now be correctly predicted from missing and unbalanced data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Exposure: Assessment, Corresponding Adverse Health Outcomes and Control Plans)
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