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Toxins
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Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms: 2nd Edition
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Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms: 2nd Edition

A Special Issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651) belonging to the section "Marine and Freshwater Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 5374

Editors

Dr. Melissa Peacock

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Salish Sea Research Center, Northwest Indian College, 2522 Kwina Rd., Bellingham, WA 98226, USA
Interests: harmful algae; subsistence shellfish harvesters; human health; biotoxin transfer; freshwater–marine continuum
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Corinne Gibble

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 151 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
Interests: wildlife health; seabird health; harmful algae; biotoxin transfer; effects of oil on wildlife
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This is the second volume of the previous Special Issue, which collated several papers on the effects of harmful algal bloom toxins. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are increasing in frequency and duration and are present in both marine and freshwater environments. While HABs have a variety of impacts, a subset produces toxins that damage human and wildlife health, causing economic harm to fisheries and directly leading to shellfish mortalities. A variety of human poisoning syndromes have a significant impact on HAB toxicity, but toxins affect every aspect of the coastal environment. This includes economic impacts on commercial and recreational fishing and aquaculture; impacts on subsistence harvests and harvesters; as well as impacts on ecological systems and wildlife. The transfer of toxins can be equally diverse and may include transfer along the freshwater–marine continuum.

This Special Issue of Toxins on “Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms”, examines the breadth of impacts that harmful algal toxins can have, ranging from human and wildlife health to economic harm. The documentation of new HAB poisoning syndromes and their direct impacts on subsistence harvesters and tribal nations is also of great interest.

Dr. Melissa Peacock
Dr. Corinne Gibble
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • harmful algal blooms
  • human health
  • biotoxins
  • ichthyotoxicity
  • shellfish harvesters
  • economic impacts
  • marine wildlife

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

38 pages, 53975 KB  
Article
Clinical and Pathological Findings in Coastal Birds Affected by Domoic Acid Toxicity
by Corinne M. Gibble, Melissa A. Miller, Raphael M. Kudela, Angelina Reed, Kevin Keel and Rebecca S. Duerr
Toxins 2026, 18(9), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090401 - 20 Sep 2026
Viewed by 1060
Abstract
In 2017, an unusually large number of live stranded and dead marine birds were found in California, coincident with a large bloom of the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia that produced the toxin domoic acid (DA). The most abundant bird species affected by this large die-off [...] Read more.
In 2017, an unusually large number of live stranded and dead marine birds were found in California, coincident with a large bloom of the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia that produced the toxin domoic acid (DA). The most abundant bird species affected by this large die-off and stranding event were Pacific Loons (Gavia pacifica) and Red-throated Loons (Gavia stellata). International Bird Rescue (IBR; San Pedro, CA) received 117 live loons with suspected DA toxicosis. Many birds that survived the first few days in rehabilitation quickly re-attained suitable health metrics; however, 68 loons (58.1%) died or were considered unreleasable due to ongoing abnormal behavior or injuries that necessitated humane euthanasia. In this descriptive study, both live stranded euthanized birds and dead stranded birds were examined to characterize and better understand the effects of DA toxicosis in the avian brain and body. Utilizing a suite of diagnostics, our analysis revealed novel pathological patterns that divided these birds into three groups: those suspected of having acute, subacute, and chronic DA toxicosis. Domoic Acid was found in all groups, and the severity of the microscopic lesions appeared to correspond with the amount of time each bird survived post-stranding. Our investigation is the first known account identifying the pathological progression from acute to chronic DA toxicosis in birds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms: 2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 3998 KB  
Article
Sphingopyxis sp. IM-1 Reduces Intact Microcystin-LR and Attenuates MC-LR-Associated Inflammatory Gene Expression in Hep3B Hepatocytes
by Apurva Lad, Mudit Bhatia, Johnna A. Birbeck, Alex Kuang, Elliot Furr, Judy Westrick, Youngwoo Seo, Dae-Wook Kang, David J. Kennedy and Steven T. Haller
Toxins 2026, 18(8), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18080337 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 514
Abstract
Excessive cyanobacterial proliferation and toxin production increasingly threaten freshwater ecosystems, drinking water systems, and public health. Among cyanotoxins, microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is one of the most prevalent variants and is recognized for its hepatotoxicity, with evidence showing it can also alter gut microbiota composition. [...] Read more.
Excessive cyanobacterial proliferation and toxin production increasingly threaten freshwater ecosystems, drinking water systems, and public health. Among cyanotoxins, microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is one of the most prevalent variants and is recognized for its hepatotoxicity, with evidence showing it can also alter gut microbiota composition. Previous studies, including our own, demonstrate that MC exposure can induce inflammation, oxidative stress, and changes in gene expression associated with immune responses, even at concentrations below guideline limits. This study investigated the protective effect of an MC-degrading bacterium, Sphingopyxis sp. IM1 (IM1) with a known enzymatic MC degradation pathway, against MC-LR-induced hepatotoxicity under in vitro conditions. Human Hep3B hepatocytes were pretreated with varying ratios of IM1 bacteria and subsequently exposed to 9.95 ppm of MC-LR for 24 h. RT-qPCR analysis demonstrated that MC-LR exposure strongly increased the expression of the inflammatory markers TNFα and TGF-β1, whereas pretreatment with IM1 significantly attenuated these responses. Mass spectrometric analysis of cell pellets and spent culture media demonstrated reduced concentrations of intact MC-LR in IM1-pretreated samples compared to MC-LR-only controls, accompanied by increased detection of tetrapeptide degradation products generated during mlr-mediated MC degradation. These results demonstrate that IM1-mediated degradation of MC-LR attenuates toxin-induced hepatotoxic and inflammatory responses, highlighting the potential of a novel microbial-based therapeutic approach to mitigate MC-induced toxicity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms: 2nd Edition)
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16 pages, 1059 KB  
Article
Nasal Exposure to Microcystin Can Trigger Immune Responses in the Lung and Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis via the Lung–Gut Axis: A Pilot Acute Mouse Study
by Minseung Kim, Sangwoon Chung, John W. Christman and Jiyoung Lee
Toxins 2026, 18(8), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18080333 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 474
Abstract
Cyanotoxin events are among the most serious consequences of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms. Microcystins (MCs), among the most prevalent cyanotoxins, are known to adversely affect human health. Recently, respiratory exposure has emerged as an important exposure route for MCs, with potential downstream effects [...] Read more.
Cyanotoxin events are among the most serious consequences of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms. Microcystins (MCs), among the most prevalent cyanotoxins, are known to adversely affect human health. Recently, respiratory exposure has emerged as an important exposure route for MCs, with potential downstream effects on the gut microbiome through the lung–gut axis. In this pilot study, we investigated acute respiratory immune responses and gut microbiome alterations following MC inhalation using female C57BL/6J mice. Mice were assigned to three dose groups: control (0 µg/kg body weight), medium (25 µg/kg), and high (50 µg/kg). MC-LR was administered intranasally once daily for 3 days. Fecal samples were collected daily for 16S rRNA sequencing, and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids were collected following sacrifice for immune cell analysis. MC exposure resulted in significantly increased monocyte counts (p < 0.1), while neutrophil, macrophage, and total cell counts did not significantly change (p > 0.1), suggesting selective lower respiratory tract inflammation. Functional prediction analysis of gut microbiota revealed significant increases (p < 0.1) in pathways associated with host health, including heme biosynthesis, sulfur oxidation, carbon metabolism, and antibiotic resistance. These findings suggest that inhaled MCs may induce respiratory inflammation and contribute to gut microbiome dysbiosis via the lung–gut axis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms: 2nd Edition)
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11 pages, 1135 KB  
Article
Skin Irritation-Associated Dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum Isolated from Cienfuegos Bay, Cuba: Toxin Profile and Cell Growth Characterization Under Laboratory Conditions
by Angel R. Moreira-Gonzalez, Catarina Churro, Vera Marques, Lisbet Díaz-Asencio, Donaida Chamero Lago and Pedro Reis Costa
Toxins 2026, 18(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18020096 - 14 Feb 2026
Viewed by 2447
Abstract
Blooms of the marine dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum have been associated with skin lesion outbreaks in Cuba and elsewhere. In this study, cell growth and toxin production were investigated under laboratory-controlled conditions in two strains isolated from Cienfuegos Bay, Cuba. Strains were cultured with [...] Read more.
Blooms of the marine dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum have been associated with skin lesion outbreaks in Cuba and elsewhere. In this study, cell growth and toxin production were investigated under laboratory-controlled conditions in two strains isolated from Cienfuegos Bay, Cuba. Strains were cultured with and without a mechanical agitation and toxins were analyzed at two stages of the culture growth (exponential and stationary). Although blooms in Cienfuegos Bay occur in a semi-enclosed system characterized by calm waters with no agitation, the results of this study suggest that V. rugosum cells may also exhibit growth capacity under agitated conditions, or in open waters, comparable to that observed in systems with low hydrodynamic energy. Higher toxin levels, as determined by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), were detected after exponential growth. Portimine-A and pinnatoxin-F (PnTX-F) were the dominant toxins (up to 1.75 and 1.0 pg·cell−1, respectively). PnTX-E, -D and Portimine-B were also detected at minor concentrations. This study contributes the first data necessary for a proper interpretation of monitoring programs aiming to assess the impact of V. rugosum blooms, particularly when used alongside forecasting models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unveiling the Toxic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms: 2nd Edition)
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