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Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish

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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Sustainable Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 18147

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Manuel Carpio

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Guest Editor

Department of Construction Engineering and Management, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Interests: sustainable constructions; life cycle assessment; timber construction; sustainability; buildings
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There is a growing awareness of the importance of using environmentally sustainable materials in construction. Timber in particular is experiencing a surge in popularity within the construction sector due to its renewable nature and significant social and environmental benefits. To utilize timber sustainably in construction, it is essential to consider the entire value chain of the timber sector, from its initial stages to the finished products. This chain begins with forest management and silviculture, encompassing various aspects related to the growth and development of forests. It extends to forest development, which focuses on the responsible use and conservation of natural resources, ensuring the production of goods and services. The subsequent phase involves the timber industry, where raw materials are processed and transformed into various new products following harvesting and transportation.

In this Special Issue, we invite high-quality original research articles that explore the following topics:

Quantification of resources and assessment of threats, such as fire, soil, and water;
Proposal of measures to ensure the sustainability of territories;
Implementation of measures to enhance the productivity, quality, and diversity of forests;
Development of structural products;
Creation of non-structural products;
Manufacturing using cutting-edge technology;
Modification of properties and functionalities;
Waste recovery;
Innovative materials;
Seismic engineering of timber structures;
Timber–concrete hybrid buildings;
Design and construction of medium and high-rise structures;
Development of new types of walls, slabs, and roofs;
Strategies for fire protection;
Construction management, digitalization, and industrialization;
Preservation and durability methods;
Quantification and enhancement of the sustainability of timber constructions;
Urban planning and public policies promoting timber-based construction;
Any other topic related to timber throughout its life cycle.

Looking forward to your valuable contributions.

Warm regards,

Dr. Manuel Carpio
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sustainability is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

timber
building
construction
forest
fire
life cycle

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Carbon Stock and Stand Cumulative Production at Harvesting Age of Pinus radiata Plantations: A Comparison Between Granitic and Metamorphic Soils

by Marianne V. Asmussen, Rafael Rubilar, Daniel Bozo, Rosa M. Alzamora, Juan Pedro Elissetche, Matías Pincheira and Oscar Jara

Sustainability 2025, 17(8), 3614; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083614 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 307

Abstract

The relationship between stand cumulative production at harvesting age and carbon stock for different soil types in forest plantations is critical for sustainable forest management and climate change mitigation. This study evaluated carbon stocks in Pinus radiata D. Don on granitic and metamorphic soils in central Chile. We selected 10 plantations and established three 1000 m² stands per plantation to quantify the carbon stock of total biomass using allometric equations and in situ carbon assessments of the forest floor and mineral soil (up to 1 m deep). A strong positive correlation was observed between stand cumulative production at harvesting age and total carbon stock (r² = 0.767), regardless of the soil type. Metamorphic and granitic soils demonstrated a high carbon stock capacity, particularly in deeper soil layers (40–100 cm), with soil contributing over 40% of the total soil carbon stock. Soil bulk density and carbon concentration were strongly correlated (r² = 0.74), emphasizing the role of soil physical properties in carbon storage at deep soil horizons. These findings highlight the critical role of subsoils as carbon reservoirs. Predictive linear models developed from this study offer a useful and simple approach for estimating carbon stocks, contributing to national carbon neutrality goals and sustainable forest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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30 pages, 4381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Timber in Mid-Rise and Tall Buildings to Construct Our Cities: A Science Mapping Study

by Alexander Wenzel, Pablo Guindos and Manuel Carpio

Sustainability 2025, 17(5), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17051928 - 24 Feb 2025

Viewed by 768

Abstract

The increase in population and urban migration has incentivized the construction of mid-rise and tall buildings. Despite the incremental rise in vertical construction, there are still investigation gaps related to high-rise buildings, such as carbon emissions and the use of low-carbon materials in tall structures. Timber presents a potential sustainable solution for mid-rise and tall buildings. The history of topics in timber building investigations began with the material characterization of innovation in construction technologies such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) and practical topics like construction collaboration, sustainability, engineering, and construction science. To identify potential topics and understand the research history of mid- and high-rise timber buildings, a bibliometric analysis is proposed. Therefore, this article aims to perform a bibliometric analysis with a science mapping technique to categorize and analyze the evolution of mid- and high-rise timber building research topics and identify the most relevant trends and current challenges. A co-occurrence keyword analysis was performed with the software SciMAT to analyze the evolution and actual trends of mid-rise and tall timber buildings. The results show an evolution in the investigation topics from timber frame elements to mass timber and CLT for high-rise buildings, which was expected due to the higher structural capacity of the mass timber product. Surprisingly, sustainability topics such as carbon emission and life-cycle analysis (LCA) were transversal in all periods with concrete as a recurrent keyword in the analysis. More specialized topics such as robustness, disproportioned collapse, perceptions, and attitude were observed in the final periods. Research projections indicate that for mid-rise and tall timber buildings, the environmental potential has to be aligned with the structural feasibility and perception of the construction’s actors and society to improve the carbon emissions reduction and support the increment of the population in an urban context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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23 pages, 5031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Timber Biogenic Carbon Stock in the Urban Environment: Santiago City as a Second Forest

by Felipe Victorero and Waldo Bustamante

Sustainability 2025, 17(2), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17020529 - 11 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 943

Abstract

Urban environments significantly contribute to carbon emissions, both through operational processes and the embodied emissions of construction materials, thus exacerbating climate change. Nevertheless, urban timber structures offer a viable alternative by acting as carbon sinks, capable of sequestering carbon for decades or even centuries. This study develops and applies a methodology to quantify the biogenic carbon stored in Santiago City’s timber-based buildings, conceptualized as a “Second Forest” that transfers and preserves the carbon capture capacity of trees in the built environment. The analysis estimates that Santiago’s urban timber constructions have expanded their wood-built surface area by 192,831 m² over the past eight years, reflecting the growing adoption of timber in urban construction. During the same period, biogenic carbon storage increased from 199.78 kt to 202.73 kt, equivalent to 10.84 kt of CO₂ under average conditions. These findings highlight the potential of urban planning strategies, such as promoting taller timber buildings and adopting circular timber practices, to enhance carbon sequestration and reduce reliance on carbon-intensive materials. This research highlights the fundamental role that timber buildings play in urban climate change mitigation, positioning them as active contributors to global carbon management efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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22 pages, 8720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Cement Paste Development Using Wheat Straw Ash and Silica Fume Replacement Model

by Bryan Bastías, Marcelo González, Juan Rey-Rey, Guillermo Valerio and Pablo Guindos

Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11226; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411226 - 21 Dec 2024

Viewed by 940

Abstract

Conventional cement production is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions, which creates a significant environmental challenge. This research addresses the problem of how to reduce the carbon footprint of cement paste production using agricultural and industrial waste by-products, namely wheat straw ash (WSA) and silica fume (SF). Currently, accurate models that can predict the mechanical properties of cement pastes incorporating these waste materials are lacking. To fill this gap, our study proposes a model based on response surface methodology and Box-Behnken design, designed to predict the strength of cement pastes with partial substitutions of WSA and SF. Through mechanical and characterization tests, the model demonstrated high accuracy in predicting the strength of the pastes, validated with three mixes, which showed maximum errors of less than 6% at different ages (7, 28, and 56 days). Response surface analysis revealed that replacing cement with 0–20% WSA and more than 5% SF can effectively reduce the carbon footprint by maximizing waste incorporation. This model allows for the calculation of optimal cement substitution levels based on the required strength, thus promoting sustainability in the construction industry through the use of local waste/resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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13 pages, 3015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applicability of Paper and Pulp Industry Waste for Manufacturing Mycelium-Based Materials for Thermoacoustic Insulation

by Hugo Muñoz, Paulo Molina, Ignacio A. Urzúa-Parra, Diego A. Vasco, Magdalena Walczak, Gonzalo Rodríguez-Grau, Francisco Chateau and Mamié Sancy

Sustainability 2024, 16(18), 8034; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188034 - 13 Sep 2024

Viewed by 2097

Abstract

Cellulose and paper produce significant waste such as ash, activated sludge, and sludge from the pulp and paper industry. Depending on the raw material, legislation, and subprocesses, these sludges contain around 30–50% organic matter, mainly composed of less than 0.02 mm cellulose fibers and hemicellulose and lignin. This work used sludge from the pulp and paper industry as a substrate for manufacturing mycelium-based biomaterials using the white rot fungus Trametes versicolor. Chemical and surface analyses revealed the formation of new materials. Acoustic impedance analyses revealed that these materials have a noise reduction coefficient and sound absorption average comparable to extruded polystyrene and polyurethane. In addition, the material’s thermal conductivity was near that of sheep wool. Therefore, the biomaterials fabricated using sludge and Trametes versicolor have the potential to be a game-changer in the industry as promising thermoacoustic insulators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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20 pages, 4347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Increases in the Amounts of Agricultural Surfaces and Their Impact on the Sustainability of Groundwater Resources in North-Central Chile

by Roberto Pizarro, Francisca Borcoski, Ben Ingram, Ramón Bustamante-Ortega, Claudia Sangüesa, Alfredo Ibáñez, Cristóbal Toledo, Cristian Vidal and Pablo A. Garcia-Chevesich

Sustainability 2024, 16(17), 7570; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177570 - 1 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1556

Abstract

Water is a fundamental resource for Chile’s productive structure, which is more important in arid areas, and especially with agricultural uses. This study was based on two basins (Cogotí and Illapel) located in the Coquimbo Region of north-central Chile. In this region, surface water rights were closed in 2002 and the only current option is the use of groundwater. These basins have high water demands due to the use of surface and groundwater for agricultural purposes, a fact that should influence the sustainability of groundwater reserves over time. The objective of this study was to determine how much agricultural use has affected the availability of groundwater in two basins. Under the previous context, the evolution of agricultural irrigation surfaces was evaluated using Landsat images and forest classifications. Similarly, groundwater reserves were evaluated using the recessive curves of hydrographs associated with the beginning of each hydrological year. The results show an increase in the agricultural area between 1996 and 2016, with a subsequent decrease, while groundwater reserves denoted significant decreases over time. In conclusion, a significant decrease in the volumes of groundwater reserves in both basins was observed, a decrease that is consistent with the increase in irrigated areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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14 pages, 2122 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Adhesion Performance in Green-Glued Finger Joints Using Different Wood Ring Orientations

by Gonzalo Rodríguez-Grau, Pierre-Louis Cordonnier, Benjamín Navarrete, Claudio Montero, Claudia Alvarado, Régis Pommier, Víctor Rosales and Carlos Galarce

Sustainability 2024, 16(16), 7158; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167158 - 20 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1311

Abstract

Structural lumber is designed to meet the technical standards that ensure safety, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. However, some tree species face limitations in their growth, which restricts their widespread use. An example of this is Nothofagus alpina, which has excellent mechanical properties but is not utilized much due to the challenges in extracting its timber and poor utilization, mainly because of the length of the wood. There is little information concerned with the uses and better management of small pieces using Nothofagus species, but it is still insufficient. This study investigates the adhesion performance of green-glued finger joints with varying wood ring orientations and moisture contents ranging from 21% to 25% using Nothofagus alpina. The primary aim is to assess how ring orientation and wet timber affect the green gluing process for creating larger wood pieces than sawn wood. The resulting products could meet the standards for wood serviceability number three for native Chilean wood. The findings indicate that finger joint performance improves with higher timber moisture levels. However, the orientation of the wood fibers did not significantly affect the performance under the tested conditions. It is important to note that this effect may become more significant near the fiber saturation point. These findings emphasize the need for a detailed protocol on the green gluing technique for Nothofagus alpina and the associated drying and surface processes in finger joint construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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18 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment and Cost Analysis of Mid-Rise Mass Timber vs. Concrete Buildings in Australia

by Riley Jolly, Holly Fairweather, Scott Rayburg and John Rodwell

Sustainability 2024, 16(15), 6465; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156465 - 28 Jul 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3066

Abstract

The building and construction industry is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers, accounting for 39% of global emissions, most of these coming from concrete and steel. Mass timber construction (MTC) potentially offers a sustainable alternative to these traditional building materials. However, more research is needed to establish the sustainability credentials of MTC relative to traditional concrete and steel structures, especially for mid-rise structures. The aim of this study is to evaluate the environmental and cost performance of mid-rise mass timber buildings by conducting a life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA uses a cradle-to-cradle approach, considering the global warming potential (GWP), freshwater use (FW), and total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT). Results indicated that mid-rise mass timber buildings have significantly lower impacts than concrete buildings, with their GWP approximately 30 times lower, FW about 20 times lower, and PENRT reaching a negative value. Additionally, the cost analysis revealed that MTC buildings can be cheaper to build and thus possibly more profitable than concrete buildings. These findings establish mass timber as a viable and sustainable option for the future of Australia’s construction industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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25 pages, 7549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bibliometric Analysis of Urban Coastal Development: Strategies for Climate-Resilient Timber Housing

by Andrés García-Ruiz, Manuel Díez-Minguito, Konstantin Verichev and Manuel Carpio

Sustainability 2024, 16(4), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16041431 - 8 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1915

Abstract

Urban development in coastal areas has become increasingly important due to the climate crisis and its effects on sea level rise and extreme events, which increased the vulnerability of coastal zones. Therefore, it is important to analyze possible sustainable development techniques in urban planning and residential housing construction based on low-carbon footprint materials such as timber. These techniques should be capable of mitigating the effects of flooding and uncontrolled rises in coastal areas, as well as identifying normative and economic differences in their application in the Chilean context. For this purpose, a bibliometric analysis of 3882 articles selected from the Web of Science database between 1987 and 2022 was conducted, allowing us to identify a range of possible solutions to be developed in the study area. This includes evaluating their potential for normative application and a cost analysis of these solutions. In this regard, housing solutions such as amphibious houses and houses on stilts are two types of flood-resistant homes that are gaining popularity worldwide. Following the technical–economic analysis, it was observed that the solution on stilts can be up to 50% more cost-effective to implement in Chile. However, both options offer a promising solution to minimize the risks of coastal flooding and should be taken into account in the urban planning of coastal areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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Review

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29 pages, 5373 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bibliometric Review of Prefabricated and Modular Timber Construction from 1990 to 2023: Evolution, Trends, and Current Challenges

by Nohelia Gutiérrez, João Negrão, Alfredo Dias and Pablo Guindos

Sustainability 2024, 16(5), 2134; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16052134 - 4 Mar 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4022

Abstract

Due to its inherent characteristics, such as a light weight and ease of workability, timber is ideal for prefabricated and modular construction. However, since the research in this field covers a wide range of niches such as structural engineering, building physics, design for assembly and disassembly, and life cycle analysis, among others, and since there has been considerable development of the field in past years—boosted by new mass timber products and tall timber construction—it is difficult to critically analyze the current state of the art, current trends, and research challenges. Therefore, this research aimed to cover a systematic review of 409 articles to assess the field of prefabricated and modular timber construction critically. The methodology comprised a co-word network approach using the Science Mapping Analysis Software Tool (SciMAT, Version 3) to illustrate their evolution from 1990 to 2023. The findings show that the circular economy and digital technologies significantly impact the development of these technologies, which can potentially provide practical solutions for designing buildings with a circular approach and improving productivity and efficiency in the construction process. However, it is essential to acknowledge a notable deficiency in the research and understanding of these subjects. Therefore, various sectors must take the lead in conducting a thorough reassessment to enhance research and development in the field. Finally, the findings from this research can significantly contribute to existing knowledge and serve as a comprehensive platform for the further exploration of prefabricated and modular timber construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Timber's Green Revolution: Sustainable Construction from Start to Finish)

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