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Advancements in GNSS Precise Point Positioning Technology and Applications
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Advancements in GNSS Precise Point Positioning Technology and Applications

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Navigation and Positioning".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 5090

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dimitrios Psychas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
ESTEC, European Space Agency, NL-2200 AG Noordwijk, The Netherlands
Interests: multi-GNSS precise positioning; integer ambiguity resolution; estimation theory
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Robert Odolinski

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National School of Surveying, University of Otago, 310 Castle Street, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
Interests: multi-GNSS precise positioning; integer ambiguity resolution; low-cost GNSS receiver
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) precise positioning with either real-time kinematic (RTK) or precise point positioning (PPP) has enabled the realization of a wide range of applications, including, amongst many others, precision agriculture, autonomous driving, structural monitoring, surveying, and inland waterway navigation. Due to the great flexibility offered by the individual corrections delivered in state-space-representation form, the ever-increasing adoption of the PPP technology has placed this technique at the center of attention in both the industrial and the scientific domains. What has been the game changer is its integer ambiguity resolution-enabled variant, namely PPP-RTK, which not only provides RTK-like positioning accuracy but can deliver it in a global sense, with lower correction transmission rates compared to RTK, and without the explicit dependence on nearby reference stations.

Despite the significant advances in PPP technology, it is not considered yet a one-size-fits-all approach for any application requiring cm-level positioning. For instance, the vulnerabilities of GNSS signals in adverse environments and the low measurement quality of mass-market devices pose significant difficulties in successfully resolving the carrier-phase ambiguities as integers. Although preliminary research has been conducted on using complementary sensing devices to augment GNSS-based PPP and PPP-RTK, further investigation is required. It is, therefore, evident that new problems and challenges will come to the fore, which will require the development of theoretical frameworks, models, operational systems, and algorithms to improve the performance achieved with this technology.

The goal of this Special Issue is to highlight such recent developments. The topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Multi-GNSS multi-frequency PPP and PPP-RTK models and algorithms;
  • Precise positioning with high-grade and low-cost receiver/antenna equipment;
  • Integer carrier-phase ambiguity resolution;
  • Observation-level integration of GNSS and other sensors (IMU, cameras, Lidar, etc.) for urban navigation;
  • LEO-augmented PPP and PPP-RTK;
  • Galileo HAS, BDS-3 PPP-B2b, QZSS CLAS.

Dr. Dimitrios Psychas
Dr. Robert Odolinski
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
  • precise point positioning (PPP)
  • integer ambiguity resolution (IAR)
  • low-cost receivers and antennas
  • sensor fusion
  • LEO
  • smartphones

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 3574 KB  
Article
Attitude Tracking Algorithm Using GNSS Measurements from Short Baselines
by Fedor Kapralov and Alexander Kozlov
Sensors 2025, 25(21), 6761; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25216761 - 5 Nov 2025
Abstract
The paper addresses the problem of attitude determination using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements from multiple antennas mounted on a navigation platform. To achieve attitude determination by GNSS with typical accuracy down to tenths of a degree for one-meter baselines, GNSS phase [...] Read more.
The paper addresses the problem of attitude determination using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements from multiple antennas mounted on a navigation platform. To achieve attitude determination by GNSS with typical accuracy down to tenths of a degree for one-meter baselines, GNSS phase measurements are employed. A key challenge with phase measurements is the presence of unknown integer ambiguities. Consequently, the attitude determination problem traditionally reduces to a nonlinear, non-convex optimization problem with integer constraints. No closed-form solution to this problem is known, and its real-time calculation is computationally intensive. Given an a priori initial attitude approximation, we propose a new algorithm for attitude tracking based on the reduction of the nonlinear orthogonality-constrained attitude estimation problem to a linear integer least squares problem, for which numerical methods are well known and computationally much less demanding. Additionally, a simple a priori model for GNSS measurement error variance is introduced, grounded on the geometry of satellite signal propagation through vacuum and the Earth’s atmosphere, providing a clear physical interpretation. Applying the algorithm to a real dataset collected from a quasi-static multi-antenna, multi-GNSS system with sub-meter baselines, we obtain promising results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in GNSS Precise Point Positioning Technology and Applications)
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19 pages, 9565 KB  
Article
Assessing BeiDou-3 PPP-B2b with Signal-in-Space Ranging Error (SISRE) and Its Performances in Positioning and ZTD Estimation
by Guangxing Wang, Fen Li, Wenhai Zhou, Guo Chen, Zhiyong Zhu, Xiaomin Jia and Qing An
Sensors 2025, 25(21), 6700; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25216700 - 2 Nov 2025
Viewed by 199
Abstract
The PPP-B2b service of BeiDou-3 enables real-time precise point positioning (RT-PPP) through correction information contained in B2b signals, circumventing the reliance on ground-based network infrastructures. This study comprehensively evaluates the accuracy of PPP-B2b correction parameters and their impact on positioning and tropospheric zenith [...] Read more.
The PPP-B2b service of BeiDou-3 enables real-time precise point positioning (RT-PPP) through correction information contained in B2b signals, circumventing the reliance on ground-based network infrastructures. This study comprehensively evaluates the accuracy of PPP-B2b correction parameters and their impact on positioning and tropospheric zenith total delay (ZTD) estimation. The PPP-B2b DCB products exhibit good consistency with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) reference, with average differences below 1.2 ns and standard deviations within 0.11 ns, indicating comparable performance to CAS products. For BDS-3 satellites, PPP-B2b achieves a radial orbit accuracy of 0.07 m and a clock standard deviation of 0.17 ns, outperforming the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES) real-time products in both aspects. For GPS satellites, the corresponding accuracies are 0.06 m and 0.20 ns. Kinematic PPP experiments using combined GPS and BDS-3 observations yield horizontal and vertical accuracies of 4.3 cm and 2.8 cm, respectively, comparable to CNES results, while the BDS-3-only solution performs better than CNES but is still slightly inferior to the CODE. The ZTD estimation accuracy reaches 1.8 cm for GPS+BDS-3 combinations and 2.3 cm for BDS-3-only cases. Overall, PPP-B2b delivers centimeter-level performance in real-time positioning and ZTD estimation, demonstrating strong potential as an independent, space-based precise service, though further improvement is required for GPS-only applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in GNSS Precise Point Positioning Technology and Applications)
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31 pages, 7790 KB  
Article
Pixel 5 Versus Pixel 9 Pro XL—Are Android Devices Evolving Towards Better GNSS Performance?
by Julián Tomaštík, Jorge Hernández Olcina, Šimon Saloň and Daniel Tunák
Sensors 2025, 25(14), 4452; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25144452 - 17 Jul 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2886
Abstract
Smartphone GNSS technology has advanced significantly, but its performance varies considerably among Android devices due to differences in hardware and software. This study compares the GNSS capabilities of the Google Pixel 5 and Pixel 9 Pro XL (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA, USA) [...] Read more.
Smartphone GNSS technology has advanced significantly, but its performance varies considerably among Android devices due to differences in hardware and software. This study compares the GNSS capabilities of the Google Pixel 5 and Pixel 9 Pro XL (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA, USA) using five-hour static measurements under three environmental conditions: open area, canopy, and indoor. Complete raw GNSS data and the tools used for positioning are freely available. The analysis focuses on signal quality and positioning accuracy, derived using raw GNSS measurements. Results show that the Pixel 9 Pro XL provides better signal completeness, a higher carrier-to-noise density (C/N0), and improved L5 frequency reception. However, this enhanced signal quality does not always translate to superior positioning accuracy. In single-point positioning (SPP), the Pixel 5 outperformed the Pixel 9 Pro XL in open conditions when considering mean positional errors, while the Pixel 9 Pro XL performed better under canopy conditions. The precise point positioning results are modest compared to the current state of the art, only achieving accuracies of a few meters. The static method achieved sub-decimeter accuracy for both devices in optimal conditions, with Pixel 9 Pro XL demonstrating a higher fix rate. Findings highlight ongoing challenges in smartphone GNSS, particularly related to the limited quality of signals received by smartphone GNSS receivers. While newer devices show improved signal reception, precise positioning remains limited. Future research should explore software enhancements and the use of various external correction sources to optimize GNSS accuracy for mobile users. Generally, a shift from research to user-ready applications is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in GNSS Precise Point Positioning Technology and Applications)
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22 pages, 3511 KB  
Article
An Investigation of Real-Time Galileo/GPS Integrated Precise Kinematic Time Transfer Based on Galileo HAS Service
by Lei Xu, Shaoxin Chen, Yuanyuan An, Pengli Shen, Xia Xiao, Qianqian Chen, Jianxiong Wei, Yao Chen and Ye Yu
Sensors 2025, 25(10), 3243; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25103243 - 21 May 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1098
Abstract
GNSS Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technology has been extensively applied to post-processing international comparisons between UTC/TAI times and real-time time transfer, predominantly in static configurations. However, with the swift advancement of intelligent and unmanned systems, there is an urgent need for research into [...] Read more.
GNSS Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technology has been extensively applied to post-processing international comparisons between UTC/TAI times and real-time time transfer, predominantly in static configurations. However, with the swift advancement of intelligent and unmanned systems, there is an urgent need for research into kinematic time transfer. This paper introduces a kinematic model Galileo/GPS integrated PPP time transfer approach leveraging the Galileo High Accuracy Service (HAS). The study utilized observational data from seven stations spanning 22 days. The findings indicate that under static conditions, GPS, Galileo, and Galileo/GPS PPP, when supported by the Galileo HAS, can achieve time transfer with sub-nanosecond precision. In kinematic scenarios, the accuracy of single-system PPP time transfer is comparatively lower, with frequent re-convergence events leading to significant accuracy degradation (exceeding 1 ns). However, in cases where re-convergence is infrequent due to a limited number of satellites, sub-nanosecond time transfer is still attainable. The Galileo/GPS integrated PPP time transfer effectively mitigates the issue of re-convergence, ensuring sub-nanosecond accuracy across all links (0.48 ns). Consequently, it is recommended to employ a multi-system integration approach for kinematic PPP time transfer, particularly when utilizing the Galileo HAS. In terms of frequency stability, GPS, Galileo, and Galileo/GPS PPP demonstrate short-term stability (over 960 s) of (5.29 × 10−13, 3.34 × 10−13, and 1.60 × 10−13), respectively, and long-term stability (over 15,360 s) of (1.49 × 10−13, 1.02 × 10−13, and 4.06 × 10−14), respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in GNSS Precise Point Positioning Technology and Applications)
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