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Advanced Sensing Technologies for Space Electromagnetic Environments

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 2950

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
1. Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica Automática y Física Aplicada, ETSIDI, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
2. IMDEA Materials Institute, Madrid, Spain
Interests: novel materials; additive manufacturing; sensors; 3D printing; aerospace; scaffolds; flexible electronics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

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Guest Editor
IMDEA Materials Institute, Madrid, Spain
Interests: smart functional materials, such as triboelectric, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, and shape-memory polymer nanocomposites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Space weather is the physical and phenomenological state of natural space environments. Through observation, monitoring, analysis, and modelling, the associated discipline aims to understand and predict the state of the Sun, as well as interplanetary and planetary environments and the solar- and non-solar-driven perturbations that affect them, in addition to forecasting and nowcasting potential impacts on biological and technological systems (COST Action 724 , 2009).

This Special Issue is focused on the consequences of space weather and how they affect the lifestyles of this planet’s citizens, with a particular focus on the normal functioning of cities, electronic equipment, electronic components, materials, and electrical infrastructures. Several electromagnetic storms have seriously threatened the population, such as the breakdown on 1 September 1859, named the Carrington event, when a massive solar storm composed of subatomic charged particles slammed into the Earth’s protective magnetosphere, altering the operation of telegraphs and electronic devices. A similar storm today would have caused failures in communication grids, electrical networks, and power lines.

The aim of this issue is to collect the most advanced research studies carried out by specialists in space weather, focusing on either the detection of cosmic episodes (mainly radiation produced by solar flares) with medium- and high-energy gamma and ion detectors, or studying the effects that this radiation produces in electronic devices, such as the generation of single-event effects or effects on materials, e.g., dislocations of their atomic lattice structure. Additional aims of this Special Issue include elucidating the different methods used to mitigate the risks that worldwide populations are facing; these may include the fabrication of novel materials for electromagnetic radiation shields or algorithmic predictions based on energy data obtained using novel radiation sensors and detectors.

  • This Special Issue aims to collect the most advanced research studies in space weather detection alongside the mitigation o.
  • This topic aligns with the scope of Sensors as numerous medium- and high-radiation sensors are used to detect electromagnetic and particle cascades and electromagnetic storms from space. Furthermore, the fabrication of novel materials that can shield cosmic radiation can only be achieved by testing them with a variety of radiation sensors.

Dr. Jose Sanchez del Río Sáez
Dr. Antonio Vázquez-López
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • space weather
  • solar flares
  • climate change
  • high- and medium-energy detectors
  • materials operating as electromagnetic shields
  • metals
  • ceramics
  • carbon polymer composites

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 7394 KB  
Article
Extreme Artificial Airglow Induced by HF Pumping Sporadic E Layer at the SURA Facility
by Alexander Beletsky, Ivan Tkachev, Savely Grach, Alexey Shindin, Igor Nasyrov, Denis Kogogin, Valery Emeljanov, Yulia Legostaeva, Elena Tareeva, Sergey Moiseev and Roman Vasilyev
Sensors 2026, 26(9), 2644; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26092644 - 24 Apr 2026
Viewed by 260
Abstract
The paper presents experimental data on the observation of artificial airglow of the ionosphere induced by HF radio wave pumping by the SURA heating facility during the presence of a blocking sporadic E layer of the ionosphere. Optical observations were carried out on [...] Read more.
The paper presents experimental data on the observation of artificial airglow of the ionosphere induced by HF radio wave pumping by the SURA heating facility during the presence of a blocking sporadic E layer of the ionosphere. Optical observations were carried out on 5 August 2024 using a three-channel photometer and CCD cameras with narrow-band filters. Emission of atomic oxygen at the wavelength λ = 557.7 nm (green line), as well as airglow close to the red line of atomic oxygen at λ = 630 nm and the band of molecular nitrogen ions 1NGN2+(00) at λ = 391.4 nm (blue band), were recorded. The induced emission intensity in the green line reached ∼270 R, larger than ever measured. Additional lower-intensity glow spots in the green line southwest and northeast of the main spot (∼12° from zenith), detected by the CCD camera, could be due to the side lobes of the SURA antenna pattern. The atypical behavior of the time course of the intensity in the red line with sharp fronts of increase and decrease may indicate the detection of emission lines of hydroxyl groups in the OH(9-3) and OH(5-0) bands, spectrally close to 630 nm. More detailed analysis of the results obtained and new similar experiments will lead to a deeper understanding of the processes occurring in the upper atmosphere/lower ionosphere during conditions of high solar activity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensing Technologies for Space Electromagnetic Environments)
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17 pages, 939 KB  
Article
Solar Flare Detection from Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances in VLF Signals via a CNN–HMM Framework
by Yuliyan Velchev, Boncho Bonev, Ilia Iliev, Peter Gallagher, Peter Z. Petkov and Ivaylo Nachev
Sensors 2026, 26(8), 2548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26082548 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 594
Abstract
In this paper we present a hybrid convolutional neural network–hidden Markov model framework for detecting solar flare events of intensity greater than or equal to M1.0 from very low frequency signals via their induced sudden ionospheric disturbances. The convolutional neural network processes fixed-length [...] Read more.
In this paper we present a hybrid convolutional neural network–hidden Markov model framework for detecting solar flare events of intensity greater than or equal to M1.0 from very low frequency signals via their induced sudden ionospheric disturbances. The convolutional neural network processes fixed-length windows of raw very low frequency signals and their temporal derivatives to produce probabilistic flare estimates, which serve as emission probabilities for a two-state hidden Markov model. Viterbi decoding enforces temporal consistency, suppressing spurious fluctuations and yielding physically plausible event sequences. The approach is specifically designed to detect the onset-to-peak interval of flare events and, with further development, could operate in real time for early flare warning. The model was trained and evaluated on very low frequency data from the DHO38 transmitter in Germany to a receiver near Birr, Ireland. Sample-level evaluation achieved a balanced accuracy of 0.819 and a Matthews correlation coefficient of 0.529, while event-level detection reached a peak F1-score of 0.558 for moderate-to-strong flares of intensity greater than or equal to C6.0. These results demonstrate automated, physically consistent detection of solar flares based on sudden ionospheric disturbances, indicating the potential of the proposed approach, when combined across multiple receivers, to act as a low-cost complement to satellite-based monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensing Technologies for Space Electromagnetic Environments)
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14 pages, 23202 KB  
Article
Design and Application of a Mobile Ultra-Audio Frequency Electromagnetic Measurement System
by Hongyu Ruan, Zucan Lin, Keyu Zhou, Yongqing Wang, Qisheng Zhang and Hui Zhang
Sensors 2026, 26(7), 2095; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26072095 - 27 Mar 2026
Viewed by 414
Abstract
Although high-frequency electromagnetic methods, such as Radio Magnetotellurics (RMT) and Controlled-Source Radio Magnetotellurics (CSRMT), are highly effective for shallow-to-medium depth exploration, deploying traditional transmitter–receiver setups remains labor-intensive and significantly slows down large-scale surveys. To overcome these logistical bottlenecks, we developed a mobile Ultra-Audio [...] Read more.
Although high-frequency electromagnetic methods, such as Radio Magnetotellurics (RMT) and Controlled-Source Radio Magnetotellurics (CSRMT), are highly effective for shallow-to-medium depth exploration, deploying traditional transmitter–receiver setups remains labor-intensive and significantly slows down large-scale surveys. To overcome these logistical bottlenecks, we developed a mobile Ultra-Audio Frequency Electromagnetic (UAEM) measurement system. While the hardware is designed with dual-mode capabilities supporting conventional controlled-source operations, this paper specifically focuses on its application in a Signals of Opportunity (SOOP) mode. By utilizing pre-existing, stable anthropogenic signals, including Amplitude Modulation (AM) broadcasts and naval very low frequency communications, the system effectively functions as a broadband RMT receiver. Technical evaluations demonstrate that the instrument operates across a 1 Hz to 1000 kHz bandwidth with a high sampling rate of 2.5 MHz. Furthermore, it achieves a dynamic range of 143 dB and maintains an apparent resistivity measurement accuracy of better than 3%. Thanks to its modular, vehicle-towed design, the UAEM system enables continuous, on-the-move data acquisition wherever ambient field sources are available. This approach eliminates the need for dedicated transmitter deployment, fundamentally reducing exploration costs and boosting overall survey efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensing Technologies for Space Electromagnetic Environments)
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28 pages, 12993 KB  
Article
The 12 November 2025 Ugly Duckling Geomagnetic Storm: From the Sun to the Earth
by Yury Yasyukevich, Ekaterina Danilchuk, Aleksandr Beletsky, Egor Borvenko, Aleksandr Chernyshov, Victor Fainshtein, Vera Ivanova, Denis Khabituev, Marina Kravtsova, Alexey Oinats, Sergey Olemskoy, Artem Padokhin, Konstantin Ratovsky, Valery Sdobnov, Artem Vesnin, Anna Yasyukevich and Sergey Yazev
Sensors 2026, 26(5), 1490; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26051490 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 912
Abstract
The 12 November 2025 G4 geomagnetic storm—the third most intense of solar cycle 25—was triggered by a complex shock-ICME (interplanetary coronal mass ejection) structure as a result of three ICMEs and driven shocks that arrived on 11–12 November. The main enhancement in the [...] Read more.
The 12 November 2025 G4 geomagnetic storm—the third most intense of solar cycle 25—was triggered by a complex shock-ICME (interplanetary coronal mass ejection) structure as a result of three ICMEs and driven shocks that arrived on 11–12 November. The main enhancement in the interplanetary magnetic field occurred in the sheath region behind the shock driven by the second ICME. The Dst index reached −217 nT (the SYM-H index reached −254 nT) and the maximum Kp index was 9-. To comprehensively analyze the causes of the storm and its complex effects on near-Earth space, we used a multi-instrumental data set, involving data from satellite missions (ACE, SDO, PROBA2), GNSS networks, ionosondes, optical instruments, high-frequency radars (SuperDARN-like), and cosmic ray monitors. The auroral oval expanded equatorward (down to ~35° N in America). We recorded a super equatorial plasma bubble that almost reached the auroral oval boundary. The equatorial anomaly crests intensified, exceeding 175 TECU, and shifted poleward (8–10°). At mid-latitudes, the F2 layer critical frequency exhibited a strong negative disturbance (−50%) during the main phase, followed by an unusually prolonged and intense positive phase (+100%). GPS Precise Point Positioning errors increased to 2–3 m at high latitudes and in regions affected by the equatorial bubble. The event also featured a Forbush decrease and ground-level enhancement (GLE 77 according to the database hosted by the University of Oulu) associated with the X5.1 solar flare. The results underscore the complex chain of processes from solar storm to geomagnetic and ionospheric responses, highlighting the risks to satellite-based navigation and communication systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensing Technologies for Space Electromagnetic Environments)
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