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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 10377

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Proloy Taran Das

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Guest Editor

Intelligent Materials and Systems (FWID), Helmholtz Center Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), 400-01328 Dresden, Germany
Interests: magnetic sensors; noise; magnetic materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Susana Cardoso de Freitas

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Guest Editor

INESC-Microsistemas e Nanotecnologias (INESC-MN), 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal
Interests: magnetic sensors; thin films for industrial applications; microfabrication technologies; nanoelectronics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Huali Yang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
Interests: spintronics; flexible magnetic sensors

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue of Sensors (MDPI) focuses on the burgeoning field of smart magnetic sensors and their many applications. Recent advancements in materials science, microfabrication techniques, and signal processing have enabled the development of highly sensitive, miniaturized, and versatile magnetic sensors. This issue explores the latest research on various smart sensor designs, including those based on magnetoresistive, giant magnetoresistive, and spintronic principles. The contributions included cover a wide range of applications, from biomedical imaging and environmental monitoring to industrial automation and advanced robotics. The articles highlight the critical role of smart magnetic sensors in enabling sophisticated data acquisition, real-time analysis, and intelligent decision making across a multitude of disciplines. This collection constitutes a valuable resource for researchers and engineers seeking to understand and leverage the transformative potential of smart magnetic sensors.

This Special Issue, “Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application”, is particularly important for future research. It aims to discuss current issues related to emerging magnetic sensors and devices and their prospective applications in different fields, such as the following:

Novel magnetic sensing methods and technologies;
Different magnetic sensors, including Hall effect devices, magnetometers, magnetoimpedance sensors, magnetoresistance sensors, and magnetoelastic sensors;
Flexible and wearable magnetic sensors;
Autonomous and embedded printable magnetic sensors: design, fabrication, assembly, and reliability;
Biomagnetic sensing and applications, and their integration in MEMS, and microfluidic systems;
Magnetic sensor interconnections/interfaces and their testing.

Dr. Proloy Taran Das
Dr. Susana Cardoso De Freitas
Dr. Huali Yang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

novel magnetic sensing methods and technologies
different magnetic sensors, including hall effect devices, magnetometers, magnetoimpedance sensors, magnetoresistance sensors, and magnetoelastic sensors
flexible and wearable magnetic sensors
autonomous and embedded printable magnetic sensors: design, fabrication, assembly, and reliability
biomagnetic sensing and applications, and their integration in MEMS, and microfluidic systems
magnetic sensor interconnections/interfaces and their testing

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 6657 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fiber-Coupled Fully Integrated Spin-Exchange Relaxation-Free Atomic Magnetometer for Functional Biomagnetic Measurements

by Wennuo Jiang, Jianjun Li, Xinkun Li and Yuanxing Liu

Sensors 2026, 26(9), 2593; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26092593 - 22 Apr 2026

Viewed by 451

Abstract

The atomic magnetometer (AM), operating within the spin-exchange relaxation-free (SERF) regime, boasts numerous advantageous qualities, including ultrahigh sensitivity, exceptional spatial resolution, and minimal power consumption. Consequently, it emerges as a promising alternative to superconducting quantum interference devices in biomagnetic measurement applications. This paper details the development of a fully integrated SERF AM system comprising a compact sensor head and corresponding control electronics. Utilizing a 4 mm × 4 mm × 4 mm cubic vapor cell, we have successfully integrated the compact sensor into a 9

{cm}^{3}

volume employing a single-beam scheme facilitated by a polarization-maintaining fiber. The in-house control electronics encompass essential components, such as the laser driver, coil driver, vapor-cell temperature controller, and transimpedance amplifier. As a result, the fully integrated SERF AM achieves a sensitivity of 25

fT / {Hz}^{1 / 2}

@5∼100 Hz, accompanied by a bandwidth of 193 Hz, meeting the necessary criteria for magnetocardiography (MCG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) measurements. Furthermore, the fully integrated SERF AM successfully records typical MCG and alpha rhythm MEG signals, showcasing immense potential for biomagnetic imaging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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19 pages, 6307 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Compact Space Search Coil Magnetometer

by Yunho Jang, Ho Jin, Minjae Kim, Ik-Joon Chang, Ickhyun Song and Chae Kyung Sim

Sensors 2026, 26(8), 2415; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26082415 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 428

Abstract

Search coil magnetometers (SCMs) are widely used in space science missions to measure time-varying magnetic fields. However, conventional SCM designs often increase sensor mass and electronic power consumption in order to meet mission-specific sensitivity requirements. This study presents the design and ground-based test results of a space search coil magnetometer (SSCM) concept aimed at reducing sensor mass and electronic power consumption while maintaining practical system operability for platform-constrained missions. Mass reduction was achieved by adopting a rolling-sheet core configuration. In addition, printed circuit board (PCB)-based interconnections between segmented windings were implemented to improve the reproducibility of assembly and mechanical robustness without additional structural complexity. Power reduction was achieved by employing an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)-based sensor amplifier and a compact control electronic unit implemented as a modular stack with a 1U CubeSat standard board form factor. Performance tests confirmed the stable operation of the integrated sensor–electronics chain over the target measurement band. The system-level noise-equivalent magnetic induction (NEMI) measured under laboratory conditions was 33 fT/√Hz at 1 kHz. Environmental tests including vibration and thermal cycling were performed to further verify the structural safety and functional stability of the sensor assembly under space-relevant conditions. The proposed SSCM architecture provides a practical approach for implementing low-mass and low-power magnetic field instruments for platform-constrained space missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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20 pages, 20651 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Energy Detection Algorithm with Clustering-Based False Alarm Suppression for Magnetic Anomaly Detection

by Jinghua Yu, Changping Du and Xiang Peng

Sensors 2026, 26(5), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26051627 - 5 Mar 2026

Viewed by 442

Abstract

To overcome the limitations of Orthonormal Basis Function (OBF) methods in magnetic anomaly detection, including high false alarm rates and ambiguous target localization due to background noise, this paper introduces a high-confidence detection algorithm based on hierarchical clustering with an optimal cut height. The core of our approach is a theoretically derived optimal cut height, which is calculated from a physical model of the magnetic dipole’s vertical gradient field. This model establishes the implicit functional relationship between the effective detection range and key parameters, including magnetic moment orientation, geomagnetic inclination, and sensor height. The calculated optimal cut height serves as the critical criterion in a complete-linkage hierarchical clustering algorithm, which processes the alarm point clouds generated by a preliminary Greatest-of Cell-Averaging Constant False Alarm Rate (GOCA-CFAR) detector. This effectively suppresses isolated false alarms caused by background fluctuations while preserving spatially coherent alarm clusters within the target’s effective detection range, thereby significantly enhancing detection confidence. Results from both simulations and field experiments validate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm, demonstrating its superior capability to reliably discriminate genuine targets from false alarms compared to traditional one-dimensional CFAR detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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18 pages, 4202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Scanning Magnetic Microscopy Using a High-Sensitivity Room-Temperature Tunnel Magnetoresistance Sensor for Geological Applications

by Hirokuni Oda, Kosuke Fujiwara, Naoto Fukuyo, Hitoshi Kubota, Tomohiro Ichinose, Mikihiko Oogane, Seiji Kumagai, Hitoshi Matsuzaki, Taizo Uchida, Miki Kawabata and Jun Kawai

Sensors 2026, 26(3), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26031075 - 6 Feb 2026

Viewed by 896

Abstract

This paper reports magnetic microscopy using high-sensitivity room-temperature tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) devices for thin geological sections. The sensitivity region of the TMR sensor has dimensions of 178 µm (L) × 0.1 µm (W) × 100 µm (H), consisting of two TMR devices. Magnetic images were obtained for a vertically magnetized Hawaii basalt thin section in two sensor configurations, with the sensor length aligned parallel to the X- (lift-off = 174 μm) and Y-axes (lift-off = 200 μm), without introducing anisotropic distortion in the magnetic images. Although the magnetic images obtained with a scanning SQUID microscope (SSM) were similar, slight discrepancies were observed in the high-spatial-resolution region. A magnetic point source (50 μm × 50 μm) with a perpendicular magnetization film was prepared for evaluation. The SSM measurements showed a clear magnetic dipole at an angle of approximately 1° from the vertical direction. The FWHMs for both the SSM and TMR sensors increased linearly with lift-off. However, the peak magnetic fields, magnetic moments, and dipole tilts of the TMR sensor were significantly larger than those of the SSM sensor. This discrepancy may be due to the vertical extent of the active region of the TMR sensor, as well as due to sensor noise and drift. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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22 pages, 9995 KB

Open AccessArticle

Skin-Inspired Magnetoresistive Tactile Sensor for Force Characterization in Distributed Areas

by Francisco Mêda, Fabian Näf, Tiago P. Fernandes, Alexandre Bernardino, Lorenzo Jamone, Gonçalo Tavares and Susana Cardoso

Sensors 2025, 25(12), 3724; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25123724 - 13 Jun 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2736

Abstract

Touch is a crucial sense for advanced organisms, particularly humans, as it provides essential information about the shape, size, and texture of contacting objects. In robotics and automation, the integration of tactile sensors has become increasingly relevant, enabling devices to properly interact with their environment. This study aimed to develop a biomimetic, skin-inspired tactile sensor device capable of sensing applied force, characterizing it in three dimensions, and determining the point of application. The device was designed as a 4 × 4 matrix of tunneling magnetoresistive sensors, which provide a higher sensitivity in comparison to the ones based on the Hall effect, the current standard in tactile sensors. These detect magnetic field changes along a single axis, wire-bonded to a PCB and encapsulated in epoxy. This sensing array detects the magnetic field from an overlayed magnetorheological elastomer composed of Ecoflex and 5 µm neodymium–iron–boron ferromagnetic particles. Structural integrity tests showed that the device could withstand forces above 100 N, with an epoxy coverage of 0.12 mL per sensor chip. A 3D movement stage equipped with an indenting tip and force sensor was used to collect device data, which was then used to train neural network models to predict the contact location and 3D magnitude of the applied force. The magnitude-sensing model was trained on 31,260 data points, being able to accurately characterize force with a mean absolute error ranging between 0.07 and 0.17 N. The spatial sensitivity model was trained on 171,008 points and achieved a mean absolute error of 0.26 mm when predicting the location of applied force within a sensitive area of 25.5 mm × 25.5 mm using sensors spaced 4.5 mm apart. For points outside the testing range, the mean absolute error was 0.63 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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13 pages, 2620 KB

Open AccessArticle

Systematic Analysis of Driving Modes and NiFe Layer Thickness in Planar Hall Magnetoresistance Sensors

by Changyeop Jeon, Mijin Kim, Jinwoo Kim, Sunghee Yang, Eunseo Choi and Byeonghwa Lim

Sensors 2025, 25(4), 1235; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25041235 - 18 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1427

Abstract

Planar Hall magnetoresistance (PHMR) sensors are widely utilized due to their high sensitivity, simple structure, and cost-effectiveness. However, their performance is influenced by both the driving mode and the thickness of the ferromagnetic layer, yet the combined effects of these factors remain insufficiently explored. This study systematically investigates the impact of Ni₈₀Fe₂₀ thickness (5–35 nm) on PHMR sensor performance under constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) modes, with a focus on optimizing the peak-to-peak voltage (V_p-p). In CC mode, electron surface scattering at 5–10 nm increases resistance, leading to a sharp rise in V_p-p, followed by a decline as the thickness increases. In contrast, CV mode minimizes resistance-related effects, with sensor signals predominantly governed by magnetization-dependent resistivity. Experimentally, the optimal V_p-p was observed at 25 nm in CV mode. However, for thicknesses beyond this point, the reduction in sensor resistance suggests that voltage distribution across both the sensor and external load resistance significantly influences performance. These findings provide practical insights into optimizing PHMR sensors by elucidating the interplay between driving modes and material properties. The results contribute to the advancement of high-performance PHMR sensors with enhanced signal stability and sensitivity for industrial and scientific applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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17 pages, 3811 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Magnetoelectric Distance Estimation System for Relative Human Motion Tracking

by Johannes Hoffmann, Henrik Wolframm, Erik Engelhardt, Moritz Boueke, Tobias Schmidt, Julius Welzel, Michael Höft, Walter Maetzler and Gerhard Schmidt

Sensors 2025, 25(2), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25020495 - 16 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

Clinical motion analysis plays an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of mobility-limiting diseases. Within this assessment, relative (point-to-point) tracking of extremities could benefit from increased accuracy. Given the limitations of current wearable sensor technology, supplementary spatial data such as distance estimates could provide added value. Therefore, we propose a distributed magnetic tracking system based on early-stage demonstrators of novel magnetoelectric (ME) sensors. The system consists of two body-worn magnetic actuators and four ME sensor arrays (body-worn and fixed). It is enabled by a comprehensive signal processing framework with sensor-specific signal enhancement and a gradient descent-based system calibration. As a pilot study, we evaluated the technical feasibility of the described system for motion tracking in general (Scenario A) and for operation during treadmill walking (Scenario B). At distances of up to 60 cm, we achieved a mean absolute distance error of 0.4 cm during gait experiments. Our results show that the modular system is capable of centimeter-level motion tracking of the lower extremities during treadmill walking and should therefore be investigated for clinical gait parameter assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Magnetic Sensors and Application)

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