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The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and...
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The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 November 2023) | Viewed by 38062

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Wu Guo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Religious Studies, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
Interests: the history of Taoism; Taoist philosophy; Taoist practice methods
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Taoism is a native Chinese religion, much different from Western religions, especially in its areas of philosophy about the Tao and the Yin-yang, its theology about the San-qing (三清, Three Pure Ones) and various divinities, its practice methods for cultivating life and performing rituals, its special attitude towards the sacred world, and secular society. How can we understand Taoist complex ideologies, practice patterns, and communities in temples or in the home, as well as their influence on Chinese society and culture? There are many different contemporary academic opinions. Therefore, we are setting up a Special Issue about Taoism in the journal Religions (ISSN 2077-1444, https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions), a famous international publication contained in A&HCI, for discussing Taoism in depth and multi-dimensionally. We are pleased to invite contributions to this Special Issue, in view of the pioneering research achievements in this area.

This Special Issue is devoted to discussing Taoist theories and practice patterns, as well as Taoist communities in temples or in the home, whether the character is associated with divinity or secularity. The aim is to study Taoism from a multi-dimension perspective, pay close attention to the relationship between the sacred and the secular, and highlight new contributions to understandings of Taoism. Papers focusing on studies of Taoist theories, practice patterns, and communities are welcome.

In this Special Issue of Religions, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • Taoist ideologies;
  • Practice patterns of Taoism;
  • Taoist communities and temples;
  • The interaction between Taoism and Chinese society;
  • The relationship between Taoism and other religions.

We look forward to receiving your contributions. Thank you very much!

Prof. Dr. Wu Guo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sacred
  • secular
  • Taoist theology
  • Taoist philosophy
  • ritual forms
  • methods for cultivating
  • Taoist communities

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Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 188 KiB  
Editorial
Preface: The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities
by Wu Guo
Religions 2024, 15(3), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030308 - 29 Feb 2024
Viewed by 2637
Abstract
As an indigenous religion of China, Taoism has always been regarded as “Za Er Duoduan” 雜而多端 (Miscellaneous and Multifaceted), just as a famous scholar Ma Duanlin 馬端臨 (1254–1340) said in the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

17 pages, 437 KiB  
Article
The Celestial Masters and the Origins of Daoist Monasticism
by Qi Sun
Religions 2024, 15(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15010083 - 10 Jan 2024
Viewed by 2481
Abstract
The Daoist monasteries, which were first popularized in southern China in the late fifth century, reflected major changes in the structure of medieval Daoism. From the perspective of comparative religious history, the rise of Daoist monasteries bears some similarity to the monasticisms that [...] Read more.
The Daoist monasteries, which were first popularized in southern China in the late fifth century, reflected major changes in the structure of medieval Daoism. From the perspective of comparative religious history, the rise of Daoist monasteries bears some similarity to the monasticisms that came into being in the Christian and Buddhist traditions; all three originated in hermitic and ascetic practices. However, Daoist monasticism did not naturally stem from the hermetic Daoism tradition; instead, it underwent a two-stage process of “grafting” in terms of its spiritual beliefs and values. The first stage saw the emergence of Daoist scriptures in the Jin and Song periods; in particular, the Lingbao scriptures, which transformed and distilled the tradition of hermetic Daoism practiced in the mountains and invested hermitic practice with a more complete and sacrosanct doctrinal foundation. The second saw the Southern Dynasties’ Celestial Masters order embrace and experiment with the beliefs and values within the Lingbao scriptures; this process introduced the inherent communitarian nature of the Celestial Masters into the development of Daoist monasticism and resulted in the large-scale transformation of religious practice among the Celestial Masters of the period. This change of direction among the Celestial Masters order in the Jin and Song periods toward mountain-based practice led to the establishment of Daoist monasticism, but also to a loss of purity therein. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
25 pages, 1008 KiB  
Article
On the Classical Principles and Contemporary Practices of Taoist Female Worship
by Daizhao Zou and Hongwei Chen
Religions 2023, 14(12), 1519; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121519 - 8 Dec 2023
Viewed by 2680
Abstract
Facing growing contemporary crises, many scholars turn to ancient eastern religions and goddess civilizations as a means of culture root-seeking. As one of the origins of Chinese civilization, Taoist female worship (道教女性崇拜) shows profound eastern wisdom and feminine philosophy on human–nature, human–human, and [...] Read more.
Facing growing contemporary crises, many scholars turn to ancient eastern religions and goddess civilizations as a means of culture root-seeking. As one of the origins of Chinese civilization, Taoist female worship (道教女性崇拜) shows profound eastern wisdom and feminine philosophy on human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. From feminist perspectives, this paper traces the origin and development of Taoist female worship and elaborates its classical principles—Qiwu (齊物) theory, Zhuyin (主陰), and Xujing (虛靜). On this basis, this paper discusses the contemporary practices of Taoist female worship’s classical principles—thingness re-enchantment (物性復魅), harmony world (和諧世界), and self-cultivation (修身養性)—and illuminates their realistic significance: rethinking ethical relationships, establishing efficient ethics, and helping people to resolve crises. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
26 pages, 1064 KiB  
Article
Searching for the Location of Lord Lao: The Evolution of Daoist Cosmic Concept between the Han and Tang Dynasties
by Zhaojie Bai and Pei Li
Religions 2023, 14(11), 1366; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14111366 - 30 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1777
Abstract
The period between the Han and Tang dynasties was a crucial time in the development of the Daoist cosmic concept. During that time, Daoist believers needed to place important deities properly in the newly created heavenly realm. Faced with placing the great deity [...] Read more.
The period between the Han and Tang dynasties was a crucial time in the development of the Daoist cosmic concept. During that time, Daoist believers needed to place important deities properly in the newly created heavenly realm. Faced with placing the great deity Lord Lao in a specific place, different Daoist believers made various attempts with some complex adjustments, which eventually reached the consensus during the Tang Dynasty at the latest that “Lord Lao lives in Great Clarity Heaven”. The investigation of this adjustment process would present multiple possibilities in the development of the Daoist cosmic concept. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
24 pages, 1018 KiB  
Article
What Do the Lingbao Celestial Scripts Tell Us about Some Fundamental Characteristics of Daoism?
by Pengzhi Lü
Religions 2023, 14(9), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091146 - 7 Sep 2023
Viewed by 1855
Abstract
Toward the end of the Eastern Jin 東晉 (317–420) and the beginning of the Liu Song 劉宋 (420–479) Dynasties, a series of scriptures, what we now know as the ancient Lingbao scriptures (gu Lingbao jing 古靈寶經), emerged. The texts contained various kinds [...] Read more.
Toward the end of the Eastern Jin 東晉 (317–420) and the beginning of the Liu Song 劉宋 (420–479) Dynasties, a series of scriptures, what we now know as the ancient Lingbao scriptures (gu Lingbao jing 古靈寶經), emerged. The texts contained various kinds of celestial scripts, which were regarded as the archetype of all the Lingbao scriptures. Among them, the 3 most important were the 672 graphs of the Perfected Script on Five Tablets in Red Writing (Chishu wupian zhenwen 赤書五篇真文), found in the Scripture of Celestial Writing 天書經 (DZ 22), the 256 graphs of the Self-Generating Jade Graphs of the Secret Language of the Great Brahmā (Dafan yinyu ziran yuzi 大梵隱語自然玉字), found in the Inner Sounds of All the Heavens 諸天內音 (DZ 97), and the 64 graphs of the Jade Script of the Five Directions and Five Sprouts (Wufang wuya yuwen 五方五牙玉文), found in the Preface to the Five Talismans of Lingbao 靈寶五符序 (DZ 388). This article traces the origins of these Lingbao celestial scripts, analyzing and explaining the content of their images and text, as well as the beliefs and practices related to them. It then summarizes how Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–477), a prominent Daoist of the Liu Song Southern Dynasty, classified and understood the various scripts in his Catalogue of Lingbao Scriptures (Lingbao jingmu 靈寶經目). Such discussions reveal some basic characteristics of Daoism that distinguish it from other religious traditions: the veneration of written symbols, the pursuit of longevity and immortality, and the synthesis of philosophy and belief. Beliefs concerning celestial writing and scripts occupy a pivotal position in the broader system of Daoist scripture and teachings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
14 pages, 977 KiB  
Article
On the Origin of “Laozi Converting the Barbarians”: A Historical Background Analysis
by Jiamin Si, Jishao Han and Yuan Zhang
Religions 2023, 14(9), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091136 - 5 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2314
Abstract
This article examines the historical background of “Laozi huahu 老子化胡” (Laozi converting the barbarians) and investigates its generation mode and constituent elements. It also discusses and reflects on issues such as the origin of “huahu” and Laozi’s deification. The origin of “Laozi huahu” [...] Read more.
This article examines the historical background of “Laozi huahu 老子化胡” (Laozi converting the barbarians) and investigates its generation mode and constituent elements. It also discusses and reflects on issues such as the origin of “huahu” and Laozi’s deification. The origin of “Laozi huahu” has little relationship to issues such as the divine system in the Han dynasty and Laozi’s deification. Its elements are rooted in Chinese secular ideological resources. The story of “heroes moving across borders” during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, along with the notion of Laozi as the universal teacher for disciples of various schools, gave birth to the saying. An analysis of the historical background suggests that the origin of “huahu” had likely gone through a long evolutionary process, including an undocumented period where it was transmitted orally as a legend. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
17 pages, 886 KiB  
Article
A New Study on Fushi of Early Quanzhen Daoism
by Hongyi Chen and Yongfeng Huang
Religions 2023, 14(6), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060814 - 20 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2255
Abstract
Fushi (服食), a method for treating diseases and nourishing life to achieve longevity, is highly valued and widely used in traditional Taoism. Regarding whether Quanzhen Taoism, a new form of Taoism founded in the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234), practices Fushi, contradictory opinions have been [...] Read more.
Fushi (服食), a method for treating diseases and nourishing life to achieve longevity, is highly valued and widely used in traditional Taoism. Regarding whether Quanzhen Taoism, a new form of Taoism founded in the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234), practices Fushi, contradictory opinions have been recorded in Collected records written on Qingyan Mountain (Qingyan conglu 青巖叢錄) from the end of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and The History of the Taoist School founded by (Qiu) Changchun (Changchun daojiao yuanliu 長春道教源流) from the late Qing Dynasty (1636–1912). Today’s scholars generally believe that Quanzhen Taoism emphasizes the cultivation of heart and mind and thus has nothing to do with Fushi. This article, centered around early Quanzhen Taoism representatives Wang Chongyang 王重陽 (1112–1170) and the “Seven True Ones (Qizhen 七真)”, combines their writings, quotations, biographies, and other materials and discovers that while Wang Chongyang and others heavily criticized the traditional method of Fushi, they also carried out extensive Fushi activities and accumulated rich practical experience in areas such as taking medicine (fuyao 服藥), breathing exercises (fuqi 服氣), fasting (bigu 辟穀), dieting (yinshi 飲食), and using talismans (fufu 服符). Early Quanzhen Taoism both denied and utilized Fushi leading to a contradiction between words and deeds. The reasons for this contradiction can be attributed to two aspects: the internal alchemy thinking of the early Quanzhen Taoism that prioritized Tao over technique (shu 術), and dual cultivation of inner nature (xing 性) and life (ming 命) and prioritizing the former over the latter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
14 pages, 5764 KiB  
Article
An Overview of the Weiyi (威儀 Dignified Liturgies) of Taoism
by Zehong Zhang and Yang Luo
Religions 2023, 14(6), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060779 - 12 Jun 2023
Viewed by 2634
Abstract
Dignified liturgies (weiyi 威儀), one of the fundamental concepts in the Taoist scriptures, shows the overall image of Taoism displayed at the altar of the retreat (zhai 齋) and offering (jiao 醮) rituals. By examining the weiyi and Weiyi Masters in Taoist history, [...] Read more.
Dignified liturgies (weiyi 威儀), one of the fundamental concepts in the Taoist scriptures, shows the overall image of Taoism displayed at the altar of the retreat (zhai 齋) and offering (jiao 醮) rituals. By examining the weiyi and Weiyi Masters in Taoist history, the dignified image of Taoist priests, the dignified duties of ritual masters, and the weiyi at the altar of the zhai and jiao rituals, we argue that the weiyi, which embodies the sacred dignity of the zhai and jiao altar, is key to understanding the meaning and function of Taoist zhai and jiao rituals. An overview of the weiyi is a new perspective in Taoist ritual studies, as in Taoist history its image as a state religion was displayed through dignified liturgies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
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14 pages, 919 KiB  
Article
A New Form of Taoist Theurgy in the Qing Dynasty: Xizhu Doufa in the Taoist–Tantric Fusion Style
by Yuhao Wu
Religions 2023, 14(6), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060775 - 12 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1867
Abstract
The Longmen Xizhu Xinzong 龍門西竺心宗 was a Taoist sect that was active during the Qing Dynasty. The sect reportedly originated in India and has long been renowned for its Xizhu Doufa 西竺斗法. However, due to its secrecy and lack of literature, its true [...] Read more.
The Longmen Xizhu Xinzong 龍門西竺心宗 was a Taoist sect that was active during the Qing Dynasty. The sect reportedly originated in India and has long been renowned for its Xizhu Doufa 西竺斗法. However, due to its secrecy and lack of literature, its true form remains a mystery. Examining the self-reported history of the Longmen Xizhu Xinzong, it can confidently be stated that Xizhu Doufa was often used in conjunction with Dharani and had deep roots in Tantric Buddhism. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Tantric Buddhism gained popularity in China and evolved into Tang Tantrism (Ch. Tangmi 唐密). There is a large amount of Dipper Method (Ch. Doufa 斗法)-related content in Tang Tantrism, which is a variant of China’s original Dipper Method observed in India. After being passed back to China, it was named “Western Transmission”. Many of the existing documents on the Dipper Method from the Ming and Qing Dynasties originated from Tang Tantrism. In terms of belief, they reflect the combination of Doumu 斗姆 and Marici; in terms of methods, they incorporate multiple elements, including the Taoist Thunder Method (Ch. Leifa 雷法) and Marici mantra. Overall, the ideas, lineage of transmission, and other aspects recorded in these documents are extremely similar to those emphasized by the Longmen Xizhu Xinzong, providing evidence for the origin of Xizhu Doufa. This evidence also provides a new reference for the direction in which Tang Tantrism developed after the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism 會昌毀佛. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
25 pages, 1100 KiB  
Article
Suggestions on the Revision of the Great Dictionary of Taoism
by Zuguo Liu, Qi Liu and Mi Wang
Religions 2023, 14(5), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050597 - 1 May 2023
Viewed by 2225
Abstract
The Great Dictionary of Taoism, published by Huaxia Publishing House in 1994 and compiled by the Chinese Taoist Association and Suzhou Taoist Association, is the first comprehensive reference book on Taoism in the world. The dictionary has provided invaluable assistance for scholars [...] Read more.
The Great Dictionary of Taoism, published by Huaxia Publishing House in 1994 and compiled by the Chinese Taoist Association and Suzhou Taoist Association, is the first comprehensive reference book on Taoism in the world. The dictionary has provided invaluable assistance for scholars of Taoism. However, in the last three decades, with the flourishing research on the language of Taoist literature, the inadequacies in the Great Dictionary of Taoism have gradually become apparent. Therefore, a systematic revision of this dictionary is necessary. Based on a selection of 700 typical entries with obvious problems from the Great Dictionary of Taoism, this paper conducts a detailed study of their errors from five key areas: entries, meanings, definitions, documentary evidence, and convention. By providing examples and proposing correctional suggestions, the paper aims to provide a necessary reference for the revision of the Great Dictionary of Taoism. The Great Dictionary of Taoism serves as a vital link between the sacred world and the secular society in Taoism, and this study will help Taoist priests, believers, and researchers accurately understand complex Taoist ideologies and practice patterns. It is significant for the inheritance and promotion of Taoist culture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
11 pages, 862 KiB  
Article
Zhao Yizhen and the Thunder Method Inherited from His Master Zhang Tianquan
by Wei Xu
Religions 2023, 14(5), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050576 - 26 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1703
Abstract
Zhao Yizhen (?–1382) was one of the most important figures in the history of Daoism in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. His master, Zhang Tianquan (1275–?), was recorded to be a disciple of Jin Pengtou (?–1341), a famous master of inner alchemy in [...] Read more.
Zhao Yizhen (?–1382) was one of the most important figures in the history of Daoism in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. His master, Zhang Tianquan (1275–?), was recorded to be a disciple of Jin Pengtou (?–1341), a famous master of inner alchemy in the late Yuan, in the poems written by Zhao Yizhen himself and in the biography of Zhao Yizhen written by Zhang Yuchu (1359–1410), the 43rd Heavenly Master. According to these records, we know that the Method that Zhao Yizhen learned from Zhang Tianquan was only about inner alchemy, inherited from Jin Pengtou. But this story does not include all the facts. Since we have found the biography of Zhang Tianquan, which is preserved in rare editions of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian collected in the libraries of Beijing and Taipei, we can determine that what Zhang Tianquan was aware of and famous for was indeed the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. With the evidence found in Daofa Huiyuan, we can conclude that Zhao Yizhen was also very familiar with the Thunder Method of Hunyuan, which must have been inherited from Zhang Tianquan, and he tried to merge it into his own ritual system of the Qingwei tradition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
22 pages, 1433 KiB  
Article
The Flow of Institutional Charisma: Quanzhen Taoism and Local Performing Arts in Republic Shandong and Henan
by Guoshuai Qin and Wanrong Zhang
Religions 2023, 14(5), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050560 - 22 Apr 2023
Viewed by 2347
Abstract
Quanzhen Taoism and its relationship with local performing arts is an important yet inadequately studied subject, to date, due to the shortage of and limited access to new sources. However, on the basis of historical documents, oral statements and field research, we determined [...] Read more.
Quanzhen Taoism and its relationship with local performing arts is an important yet inadequately studied subject, to date, due to the shortage of and limited access to new sources. However, on the basis of historical documents, oral statements and field research, we determined at least eight genres of local performing arts closely related to Quanzhen Taoism, especially its sublineage, the Longmen School, in Republic Shandong and Henan. They traced back their own history to Quanzhen Taoist patriarch WANG Chongyang, adopted the Quanzhen Taoist lineage poem to name their disciples, and created the Ever Spring Guild (Changchun hui 長春會), in the name of Quanzhen Taoist QIU Changchun 丘長春, to assist each other. In other words, the Quanzhen Taoist institution was imitated by the local performing arts and, at the same time, the local artists performed some reasonable adaptations and accommodations to meet their own needs. By reviewing the local performing arts in Shangdong and Henan provinces, we can further understand Quanzhen Taoism in popular cultural traditions and local societies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
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17 pages, 1243 KiB  
Article
Gender Trouble in the Early Lingbao Scriptures
by Jiefeng Lu
Religions 2023, 14(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14010051 - 28 Dec 2022
Viewed by 2120
Abstract
The early Lingbao scriptures incorporate pluralistic gender discourses. On the one hand, the early Lingbao scriptures accept the social gender system of “differences between men and women” as the decision of all deities, and incorporate the “chastity” virtue of women advocated by Confucianism. [...] Read more.
The early Lingbao scriptures incorporate pluralistic gender discourses. On the one hand, the early Lingbao scriptures accept the social gender system of “differences between men and women” as the decision of all deities, and incorporate the “chastity” virtue of women advocated by Confucianism. The auspiciousness of giving birth to a boy and the masculine perspective of the Daoist discipline are not immune to correlative sexism. On the other hand, the early Lingbao scriptures actively borrow the Buddhist individualized gender, take the term “transforming a female into a male” as one of the “eight difficult situations” and the merit of worshipping the Daoist scriptures and illustrate the cultivated journey of women beyond gender in the stories of past actions, in an attempt to overcome the correlative sexism caused by the dominant gender system. The Dao unifies the concept of correlative gender and the concept of individualized gender, makes men and women equal objects of teachings, gives the perfected transcendent the freedom to choose gender, and integrates family ethics and individual transcendence with the images of a Daoist wife. The early Lingbao scriptures echo the Daoist principle of softness and femininity, use gender as an opportunity for Daoist cultivation, and explore possible ways to resolve gender trouble. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
13 pages, 899 KiB  
Article
Visualizing the Invisible Body: Redefining Shanshui and the Human Body in the Daoist Context
by Ziyun Liu
Religions 2022, 13(12), 1187; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13121187 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2615
Abstract
This paper addresses the “invisible body in shanshui paintings” by redefining the correlation between shanshui and the human body in the Daoist context. I argue that the human body is not invisible in shanshui painting—it is ever-present through the agency of the shanshui [...] Read more.
This paper addresses the “invisible body in shanshui paintings” by redefining the correlation between shanshui and the human body in the Daoist context. I argue that the human body is not invisible in shanshui painting—it is ever-present through the agency of the shanshui. The correlation will be unpacked in two aspects. Firstly, shanshui is ontologically connected and shares a “corporeal” affinity with the bodies of human beings. Secondly and more importantly, with the development of inner alchemy (neidan 內丹), shanshui and the human body are identified as representative of one another. Shanshui becomes the body through the lens of the unique concept of neijing 內景 (inner landscape). As the powerful and redemptive mediation between human beings and the Dao, shanshui reveals not only the inner body but also the mechanism of inner energies. Furthermore, it offers a solution to solve the Daoist anxiety over the body’s physical limitations by breaking down the constant confrontation and opposition between the “I” and the cosmos and reactivating one’s primordial dependency on nature. Shanshui painting, in this vein, transcends the mundane body and provides access to the sacred truth and reality of the Dao. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sacred and the Secular in Taoism: Theories, Practices, and Communities)
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