On the Classical Principles and Contemporary Practices of Taoist Female Worship

Abstract

Facing growing contemporary crises, many scholars turn to ancient eastern religions and goddess civilizations as a means of culture root-seeking. As one of the origins of Chinese civilization, Taoist female worship (道教女性崇拜) shows profound eastern wisdom and feminine philosophy on human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. From feminist perspectives, this paper traces the origin and development of Taoist female worship and elaborates its classical principles—Qiwu (齊物) theory, Zhuyin (主陰), and Xujing (虛靜). On this basis, this paper discusses the contemporary practices of Taoist female worship’s classical principles—thingness re-enchantment (物性復魅), harmony world (和諧世界), and self-cultivation (修身養性)—and illuminates their realistic significance: rethinking ethical relationships, establishing efficient ethics, and helping people to resolve crises.

1. Introduction

Facing increasing contemporary crises, people have begun to rethink culture and civilization. It is against this background that culture root-seeking has appeared as a means of trying to find solutions for human beings. On the one hand, for western countries, in “Culture Root-seeking” (Ye 2019, p. 5), various “cultural others” (Ye 2019, p. 5) become a mirror for the self-reflection of western culture. On the other hand, for non-western countries, culture root-seeking is seen as a part of “glocalization” (Robertson 2000, pp. 249–50), with the aims of self-identification and self-reflection. Culture root-seeking has manifested in many ways, mainly including the “Eastern Turn” (Ye 2019, p. 7) and the “Goddess Revival” (Ye 2019, p. 6). At the end of the 20th century, there was a spread of eastern influences on the west. Western intellectual pioneers such as the psychologist Carl Gustav Jung, the religious theorist Mircea Eliade, and the scientist Fritjof Capra sought wisdom from eastern religions to cope with crises. At the same time, under the influence of ecological feminism, the Goddess Revival was increasingly popular in western academia. It aims to revisit patriarchal values with prehistoric goddess beliefs and to reshape a harmonious worldview that is more in line with the law of nature (Ye 2019, p. 6). It helps human beings reconfirm the roots of their lives and recover their lost souls and beliefs (Ye 2019, p. 161). The two cultural tendencies of the Eastern Turn and the Goddess Revival complement and support one another with their common wisdom of nature reverence and motherhood veneration. “Taoist female worship” (Zhan 1990, p. 54), with its profound eastern religious connotations and goddess cultural heritage, becomes one of the important fusion points of both the Eastern Turn and the Goddess Revival.

Taoist female worship, as a combination of “goddess worship” (女神崇拜) and “female immortal worship” (女仙崇拜), stands as a Chinese religious tradition with female immortals as the core of belief (Zhan 1990, p. 54). From a feminist perspective, Taoist female worship, possessing both the ecological spirit of eastern religions and the philosophical thoughts of goddess civilizations, instructs people to live in harmony with the universe and achieve spiritual immortality. Regarding Tao (道) as the mother of all things in the universe, Taoist female worship is characterized by “respecting and conforming to nature” (順應天道), “advocating femininity while appreciating masculinity” (尚阴贵阳), and “practicing humility and tranquility” (虛靜修煉). Accordingly, it is believed that Taoist female worship advocates three classical principles—the Qiwu principle, Zhuyin principle, and Xujing principle—which form a complete system of worldviews about human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. For thousands of years, the three classical principles of Taoist female worship have evolved in step with historical development. In the contemporary era, the Qiwu principle has evolved into the practical idea of thingness re-enchantment, the Zhuyin principle has been developed into the practice of harmony world, and the Xujing principle is represented by the common norm of self-cultivation. These contemporary practices inherited and developed the classical principles of Taoist female worship, playing an important role in regulating the ethical human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships, providing ethical principles and practices for contemporary society, and contributing to Chinese wisdom’s capacity to solve contemporary crises.

This article aims to discuss, from feminist perspectives, the inspirations of Taoist female worship on how to resolve contemporary crises through regulating human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. The body of this article contains three parts. The first part traces the origin and development of Taoist female worship. The second part analyzes the classical principles of Qiwu, Zhuyin, and Xujing advocated by Taoist female worship. The third part discusses the contemporary practices of thingness re-enchantment, harmony world, and self-cultivation, which are inherited and developed from the classical principles of Taoist female worship. Interpreting from feminist perspectives, Taoist female worship is more than a Taoist religious tradition; it is also a cultural symbolism of Tao. In this respect, the word female, like the word femininity, is used as a general term to render Chinese words such as yin (陰), ci (雌), and pin (牝), which indicate the universal force, attribute, style, or manner in opposition to the male (Liu 2001, p. 239). It is believed that Taoist female worship, along with classical principles and contemporary practices, is not gendered; it aims not to reinforce the stereotypes of men or women, nor to prioritize one side within every binary relationship; instead, it serves as a cultural, ethical, and philosophical metaphor, aiming to remind and inspire people to remedy the injustices of human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships so as to achieve ecological balance, social harmony, and individual well-being, ultimately solving contemporary crises.

2. The Origin and Development of Taoist Female Worship

Since ancient China, there has been a tradition of female worship, including goddess worship and female immortal worship, which have been inherited, integrated, and developed by Taoism into a complete Taoist female immortal system. On this basis, under the influence of Zhuyin thought, the Taoist female devotees’ efforts, and emperors’ immortal worship, Taoist female worship was established and developed, and it flourished not only as a Taoist religious tradition but also as a cultural symbolism of Tao.

2.1. The Origin of Taoist Female Worship

Before the formation of Taoist female worship, there was already female worship, which was manifested in the worship of goddesses and female immortals. Ancient female worship originated from goddess worship. Goddess worship is the result of our ancestors’ admiration of female fertility. This admiration was externalized into mystical rituals, in which women were glorified with goddess characteristics and the divine position (Zhan 1990, p. 7). Initially, goddess worship only had natural attributes; with the establishment of matriarchal females’ exalted status—the mother was the link that maintained the blood relationship—it acquired social attributes (Zhan 1990, p. 8). In addition to our ancestors’ admiration of female’s fertility, goddess worship was also induced by our ancestors’ need to transform nature (Zhan 1990, p. 10). Goddess worship evolved over time to include more goddesses and developed into an important religious feature of the pre-Qin Dynasty (先秦) (Zhan 1990, p. 14).

Female immortal worship was another manifestation of female worship during the pre-Qin Dynasty. If God worship is a religious characteristic common to all the peoples of the world, then immortal worship is a unique religious characteristic in the ancient belief system of the Chinese people. In ancient China, immortality means “live forever and ascend to heaven” (長生仙去) (Zhan 1990, p. 14). Female immortals were those who combined divinity, immortality, and femininity. The concept of the female immortal is rooted in goddess worship. Following the development of society, witches who possessed the miracle medicine of immortality were transformed into female immortals. Simultaneously, some female Taoists were gradually upgraded to the status of female immortals. In this way, the number of female immortals continued to increase (Zhan 1990, p. 18).

Overall, female worship is the result of people’s idealization of life and death, and a ritual reproduction of women’s special vitality, reflecting the conscious awareness of our forefathers in their struggle against disease and death. Fundamentally, both goddess worship and female immortal worship were forms of supporting the ancient people’s consciousness of life. If goddess worship represents our forefathers’ desire for life, then female immortal worship shows our forefathers’ resistance to death. Therefore, goddess worship and female immortal worship comprise two-level reflections of the same consciousness (Zhan 1990, p. 26).

2.2. The Development of Taoist Female Worship

Taoism inherited and developed Chinese female worship tradition. As a traditional Chinese religion, Taoism was officially founded and institutionalized in the Eastern Han Dynasty (東漢), and its origins can be traced back to the pre-Qin Taoist school1. Taoism took Laozhuang’s (老莊) Taoist thoughts of pre-Qin Dynasty as the core matrix. At the same time, it inherited the concepts, practices, and rituals of Chinese Wicca (中國巫教)2, Fangxian Tao (方仙道)3, and Huanglao Tao (黃老道)4, and was finally founded and institutionalized by Daoling Zhang (張道陵)5. On this basis, Taoism inherited the goddesses in ancient Chinese mythological texts such as the Classic of Mountains and Seas (《山海經》6) and the Biography of Mu Tianzi (《穆天子傳》7). The female immortals of newer texts were also continually incorporated into the classical biographies of Taoist immortals. From the end of the Western Jin Dynasty (西晉末) or the beginning of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (東晉初) to the Qing Dynasty (清朝), more and more female goddesses and immortals were included by The Biographies of the Gods and Immortals (《神仙傳》8), Shangqingbu Taoching (《上清部道經》9), and the Zhengao (《真诰》10), and received great acceptance and respect in Taoist activities. Collections of biographies, such as Yongcheng Jixian Lu (《墉城集仙錄》11)—A Collection of Taoist Female Immortals’ Biographies, A Post-Collection of the Female Immortals of All Ages (《歷世真仙體道通鑒後集》12), and Volume Eight of The History of the Immortals of All Ages (《歷代仙史·卷八》13), were dedicated to the specialized biographies of female immortals. In the long process of development, Taoism integrated the worships of goddesses and female immortals, and drew on the contents and methods of existing female worship, eventually forming a complete Taoist female immortal worship system.

The Taoist female immortal worship system includes five lineages of worshiped immortals: the Shengmu Yuanjun (聖母元君), the scattered female immortals of all generations (歷代散見女仙), the female immortal system of Xingning descending immortal lineage (興甯降仙系女仙), the female immortals of the Huayang Fairland (華陽洞天女真), and the female Taoist devotees of the Middle Ages (中世女道) (Li Yang 2000a, p. 12). The innate character of ShengmuYuanjun is a Xuanmiao Yunǚ (玄妙玉女) born from the three Qi (炁) Taoist energies, namely, Yuan (元)—origin; Xuan (玄)—mysteriousness; and Shi (始)—beginning, and her identity is the sacred mother and teacher of Laozi. Her special mission is to enlighten the world (Li Yang 2000a, pp. 50–51). Nüwa (女娲), also known as Lishan Laomu (骊山老姆), and her various transformations are typical of scattered female immortals who were transformed from traditionally worshiped goddesses. In Taoism, Nüwa was omnipotent as “the sacred female immortal of ancient times, who transforms all things” (古之神聖女，化萬物者也。) (qtd. in Zhan 1990, p. 10). Later generations like Bixia Yuanjun (碧霞元君), Mazu (媽祖), and Linshui Furen (臨水夫人), etc., are also famous scattered Taoist female immortals. Xiwangmu (西王母), also known as Jinmu Yuanjun (金母元君), was both the leader and mother of the female immortals of the Xingning descending immortal lineage (Li Yang 2000a, p. 64). It is written in the Yongcheng Ji Xian Lu that “Jinmu Yuanjun is the leader of the female immortals, and the ruler of Yongcheng” (Li Yang 2000a, p. 59). The female immortals of the Xingning descending lineage include the Mingxing female immortals (明星女仙), Xianren Yunǚ (仙人玉女), and Liuding Yunǚ (陸丁玉女) (Zhan 1990, pp. 40–41). Mingxing female immortals are related to the sun, moon, and stars, with the representatives of Lady Taiyin Yuegong (太阴月宮夫人) and Doumu Yuanjun (斗姆元君). The Xianren Yunǚ are the personification of the Mingxing female immortals, while the Liuding Yunǚ are the arti-factualization of the Xianren Yunǚ (Deng 2017, p. 359). The Huayang Dongtian lineage of female immortals are the Shanqing female immortal officials who reside in the Huayang Dongtian Xianzhen Gongfu (華陽洞天仙真宮府), with Hanzhentai (含真台) and Yiqiangong (易遷宮) as the home base (Li Yang 2000a, p. 70), including Chunlong Liu (劉春籠), Xizi Li (李溪子), Xihua Han (韓西華), Qiongying Dou (窦瓊英), Sutai Zhao (趙素台), Lihe Chuan (傳禮和), Huizi Zhang (張徽子), Shuying Ding (丁淑英), etc. (Li Yang 2000a, p. 70). Most of the female Taoist devotees of the Middle Ages came from folklore, including Guanfu Huang (黃觀福), Shangxian Dong (董上仙), Zhengmian Yang (楊正見), Dongxuan Bian (邊洞玄), Fajin Wang (王法進), Ziran Xie (謝自然), Xuanjing Pei (裴玄靜), Xuanfu Qi (戚玄符), Fengxian Wang (王鳳仙), Xianfu Gou (缑仙姑), Xuantong Xue (薛玄同), Miaodian Lu (魯妙典), Pingzhi Yang (楊平治), etc. (Li Yang 2000a, pp. 84–88). By the Middle Ages, Taoist female worship had spread widely to the lower classes, and the miracles (靈迹) of Taoist female immortals were also widely spread, such as the light and speedy walking (輕身疾走) of Xiangu He (何仙姑), Xiangu Zheng’s (鄭仙姑) cooking without rice (無米之炊), Xiangu Zhang’s (張仙姑) illnesses diagnosis by operating Qi (發炁診疾), Xiaoyao Qi’s (戚逍遙) silent resting without eating (靜默休糧), Meiniang Lu’s (盧眉娘) skillful weaving of the island of Chau Island (巧織洲島), Qiongyu Chen’s (陳瓊玉) divine walking on water (水上神行), and Xiangu Yu’s (于仙姑) water yanking through the ten fingers (十指流茶) (Zhan 1990, p. 51). With the development of history, Taoist female immortals were increasing, their images have changed from simple to complex, their “miracles” have become increasingly well-known, and the Taoist female immortal system was increasingly influential.

Based on Taoist female immortal worship system, the Taoist principle of Yin (陰)—femininity; the important role played by women in the organizational construction of Taoism; and the female worship activities of the rulers reinforced the establishment and strengthened the flourishing of Taoist female worship (Zhan 1990, pp. 44–52). Guicang (《歸藏》14) is the original philosophical work focusing on the Yinyang dialectics. It is headed by the Kun (坤) trigram, advocating the principle of Yin, which is inherited by Taoism (Zhan 1990, pp. 44–46). Taoism gradually formed a fundamental doctrine rooted in Yin. Since the principle of Yin was originally a philosophizing of female worship, when it became one of the theoretical foundations of Taoism and was widely publicized and applied, it inevitably became one of the principles of Taoist female worship and reinforced female worship in return. This is one of the main reasons why the number of Taoist female immortals was increasingly enlarged (Zhan 1990, p. 49).

The important role of female Taoist devotees in the Taoist organizational construction also accelerated the development of Taoist female worship. For example, Meiniang Lu’s active religious and social activities at the end of the Han Dynasty (漢朝) contributed to the unification of government and religion (Zhan 1990, p. 49). Since the Weijin Nanbei dynasties (魏晉南北朝), some female Taoist devotees became the founders of Taoist schools and mainstays of Taoist teachings. For instance, Wei Furen’s (魏夫人) vigorous teaching of the art of Taoist internal alchemy was of great significance to the formation of the Shangqing school (上清派) (Zhan 1990, p. 50). Such outstanding Taoist female devotees attracted many women to convert to Taoism, spawning more stories of female immortals and enlarging the Taoist female immortal system (Zhan 1990, p. 51).

Additionally, the ruler’s worshiping of Taoist immortals, including female immortals, was also one of the factors contributing to the development of Taoist female worship. This phenomenon was most prevalent in the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) because the royal family regarded Laozi as their ancestor. Taoist miracles were regarded as the auspicious signs of the ancestor’s blessing and the country’s prosperity, and the appearances of immortals, including female immortals, were taken as manifestations of local political achievements and the clarity of government (Li Yang 2000a, p. 78). This reverence for Taoism and immortality provided fertile soil for female worship, making the Tang Dynasty a golden age for both Taoism and Taoist female worship.

Under the influence of Zhuyin philosophy, the Taoist female devotees’ efforts, and the historical background of emperors’ immortal worship, the religious tradition of Taoist female worship was further established and flourished. It is even extended to a cultural unconsciousness of China. Just as Shichuang Zhan argued, the combination of the Taoist female worship and the doctrine of female cultivation can be said to be a manifestation of the collective cultural awareness of China, which is not only spread in Taoism but is also widely related to many aspects of the entire spiritual structure (Zhan 1990, p. 132). In fact, in the contemporary era, Taoist female worship is still playing an important role not only in religious activities but also in cultural, spiritual, and ethical cultivation.

Shichuang Zhan points out that since female worship was inherited and developed mainly by Taoism, it is rational that female worship can be defined as Taoist female worship, namely, a religious tradition inherited and developed by Taoism with the fundamental purpose of eliminating calamities, removing evils, and achieving immortality, with the female deity as the core of its beliefs (Zhan 1990, p. 54). From feminist perspectives, female deities include not only Taoist motherly goddesses and female immortals but also Taoist renunciants, Taoist devotees, and ordinary lay practitioners or followers. Just as Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn conclude, after their survey of the historical record to illustrate the changes in the Taoist perception and social situation of women (Despeux and Kohn 2003, p. 5), “Ordinary events, normal people, and undistinguished workers do not make exciting subjects worthy of recording for posterity or extolling in the present. Still, it is those ordinary individuals, that make up the majority of people, and the majority of women.” (Despeux and Kohn 2003, p. 244). When talking about Taoist female worship, this article not only takes the small-portioned female Taoists presented in classical Taoist literature as the worshiped icons but also takes the whole Taoist population, both the female and the male, as worshiped objects because each Taoist has the collective genes of Taoist appreciation and application of femininity. These worshiped objects can serve as models for both living women and men. In this sense, Taoist female worship can also be regarded as a cultural symbolism of Tao, within which the symbolized motherhood (母性), maternity (牝性), femininity (陰性), and fertility (雌性) are regarded as the worshiped female virtues which are beneficial for all mankind. The worshiped female virtues do not mean gendered or stereotyped features exclusively for women; rather, they refer to normative moralities for all.

In a word, Taoist female worship is a unique Chinese religious tradition formed and developed after the combination of primitive goddess worship and female immortal worship by Taoism. Interpreting from feminist perspectives, it is more than a religious tradition; it also serves as a cultural symbolism of Tao concerning the worldview system of human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. It advocates principles of Qiwu, Zhuyin, and Xujing, which, with historical evolution, have been inherited and developed by contemporary practices, namely, thingness re-enchantment, harmony world, and self-cultivation. When talking about the classical principles and contemporary practices of Taoist female worship concerning human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships, this article, with feminist ecological, humanistic, and individual concerns, aims not to offer a limited religious guidance for Taoists but to offer infinite cultural, philosophical, ethical, and practical inspirations for the whole world’s general public in confronting contemporary crises.

3. The Classical Principles of Taoist Female Worship

As mentioned above, Taoist female worship can be traced back to the mythological age. With its development from the Fuxi (伏羲) era, Huangdi (黃帝) era, and Yaoshun (堯舜) periods to the end of the Warring States (戰國) period and the Qinhan (秦漢) periods, Taoist female worship emerged following the official establishment of Taoism at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (東漢). During that time, natural disasters were aggravated, social conflicts were intensified, the economy declined, and the people were in dire straits (Zhan 2017, p. 4). Taoist female worship, following the establishment of Taoism, arose in response to that state of crisis. Therefore, like Taoism, in addition to having some classical religious characteristics, such as the ideals of immortality (長生不老), a complete system of immortals, specialized biographies, and unique religious rituals, etc., Taoist female worship also formed Tao-focused principles for people in confronting crises (Zhan 2017, p. 5). From feminist perspectives, Taoist female worship advocates three main principles, namely, Qiwu, Zhuyin, and Xujing, for people to deal with crises. With these principles rooted in the Taoist spirit of Tao (道)—the origin, operating law, and returning of the universe; and the criterion of Te (德)—morality, virtues, or ethics, Taoist female worship had established a set of worldviews on human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships, which were of great help in that troubled time.

3.1. The Principle of Qiwu

First and foremost, in terms of the human–nature relationship, Taoist female worship advocates the Qiwu principle. Qiwu means “the oneness of all things” (萬物齊一). It is one of the core principles of Tao Te Ching (《道德經》). Laozi declared the oneness of all things to be the Tao: “Tao has no clear, fixed entity. It is in a trance, but there is an image in it. It is in a trance, but there is the oneness of things in it” (道之爲物，惟恍惟惚。惚兮恍兮，其中有象。恍兮惚兮，其中有物。) (Laozi 2011, p. 55). Zhuangzi inherited and developed the Qiwu Principle of Laozi in his writing “On Qiwu” in Zhuangzi. He used many allegories to illustrate the principle of Qiwu: “heaven and earth are born together with me, and all things are the one with me” (天地與我並生，而萬物與我爲一。) (Zhuangzi 2007, p. 39). There is an equivalent relationship between the oneness of all things, the mother, and the Tao. This relationship is the most important vision of Tao Te Ching. Laozi claimed that “(Tao) is the mother of all things” (Laozi 2011, p. 1) in the first chapter of Tao Te Ching. In chapter 6, Laozi further claimed that “The Tao is eternal and everlasting because it is similar to a great mother giving birth to and nurtures all things in the universe restlessly. The birth gate of profound motherly fertility is the root of all things in heaven and earth. It exists forever with infinite functions” (谷神不死，是謂玄牝。玄牝之門，是謂天地根。綿綿若存，用之不勤。) (Laozi 2011, p. 18). In chapter 25 of Tao Te Ching, Laozi claimed that “There is the oneness of all things, which has been in existence since the formation of the heaven and the earth. I can’t hear its voice or see its form, it is quiet and humble, it doesn’t rely on any external force, but exists independently and never stops, it circulates and never fails, and it can be the motherly root of all beings. I don’t know its name, so I reluctantly call it Tao, and then reluctantly give it another name called Da (Greatness)” (有物混成，先天地生，寂兮寥兮，獨立而不改，周行而不殆，可以爲天下母。吾不知其名，字之曰“道”，強名之曰“大”。) (Laozi 2011, p. 65). It is clear that the function of the oneness of all things is equal to the mother and the Tao, which is the origin of the universe, the beginning of life, and the primitive source of the world. From the feminist perspective, the metaphor of using the mother to symbolize the oneness of all things is meant to illustrate the Taoist motherly philosophies of Qiwu principle–Ziran (自然)—naturalness; and Wuwei (無爲)—non-action.

Laozi’s use of the analogy combining the oneness of all things, the Tao, and the mother shows, first, that the Qiwu principle advocates the motherly Taoist wisdom of Ziran. The Qiwu principle believes that the origin of the universe, namely, the oneness of all things, the mother, or the Tao, is natural and spontaneous instead of being intentional. Therefore, the Qiwu principle advocates Ziran, which means naturalness. Laozi claimed in chapter 25 that “Human models on Earth; Earth models on Heaven, Heaven models on Tao; Tao models on Nature” (人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。) (Laozi 2011, p. 66). According to Xiaogan Liu, this stanza shows that Tao is the highest concept of the universe. As the oneness or the mother of the universe, it follows the principle of naturalness. Thus, naturalness is endowed by Tao with the position of the pivotal value (Liu 2001, p. 243). Laozi compared Tao to the mother; the mother is closely related to nature because they are both featured by the virtue of being fertile and selfless. Specifically, the mother is as great as nature for her eternal fertility to give birth to all things, her selflessness, and her fairness in giving life to all things, treating them as equal beings without possessing, disturbing, or favoring any of them. The characteristic of naturalness is often attributed to motherly virtues like selflessness, generosity, tolerance, and amiability.

Moreover, Laozi’s repeated use of the metaphor of the mother for the Tao clarifies that the Qiwu principle promotes another Taoist wisdom, Wuwei. Out of the belief that the Tao or the oneness of all things is the intrinsic essence of the universe, remaining unaffected by the external elements and keeping the universe in natural balance and harmony, the principle of Qiwu promotes Wuwei, which means non-action, namely, taking no action to interrupt natural harmony and balance. Laozi claimed in chapter 64 that, “He who takes actions fails. He who grasps things loses them. For this reason, the sage takes no action and therefore does not fail. He grasps nothing and therefore he does not lose anything” (爲者敗之，執者失之。是以聖人無爲，故無敗；無執，故無失。) (Laozi 2011, p. 170). Therefore, Taishang Laojun (太上老君)—the divine Laozi—was the one of most important paragons in practicing Wuwei. He remained humble in front of Heaven and Earth and kept his own fundamentals, taking no actions, unlike everyone else, to practice benevolence, loyalty, respect, love, and desire out of self-benefit. He believed the Heaven, Earth, and Human to be funded by the Great Tao and endowed with the same qi, but people are all chasing trifles while neglecting the essentials, which leads to self-harm. With such a belief, Laojun guarded the root of the Tao, the oneness of all things, so he became a Taoist immortal. Therefore, it is believed that if people can follow the saints’ Wuwei wisdom, they can achieve immortality and return to the Great Tao (G. Li 2017, p. 307). Similar to naturalness, Wuwei is also the inspiration of the motherly virtues of being passive, still, quiet, and tranquil. Accordingly, the female is regarded as the epitome of Wuwei, and Laozi’s exaltation of the feminine is taken as the symbol of the Taoist doctrine of Wuwei.

As the two aspects of the Qiwu principle, Ziran and Wuwei, are complementary, naturalness is the theoretical essence of Wuwei, while Wuwei is the method of achieving naturalness. They both explain the motherly features of the Taoist Qiwu principle. According to Gang Li’s explanation, the Tao is originally natural, and the so-called “birth” of the Tao in Tao Te Ching is self-generated without being born, which can help us to further understand the naturalness of the Tao (G. Li 2017, p. 306). In other words, naturalness is the nature and root of Tao. Wuwei, as another feature of natural Tao, aims to maintain naturalness. Only with Wuwei can the Taoist sages support all things in their natural state, be prudent, and dare not take any action. All of these are the manifestation of the spirit of Wuwei, which works, in turn, to protect the naturalness of all beings. Thus, we see that Ziran is a core moral value, while Wuwei is the methodological principle to actualize and sustain it (Liu 2001, p. 244). In fact, Ziran and Wuwei represent the dialectical relationship of You (有)—oneness; and Wu (無)—nothingness, with the mother as their common symbolized association, just as Laozi claimed in chapter 1 of Tao Te Ching, “Tao can be Tao, but it is not the normal Tao; It can be named but cannot be normally named. The nothingness is named as the beginning of heaven and earth, while the oneness is a named as the mother of all things.” (道可道，非常道，名可名，非常名。 無名天地之始，有名萬物之母。) (Laozi 2011, p. 2). Based on Taoist dialectic thinking with the mother as the consistent symbol, Xiaogan Liu points out that both Ziran and Wuwei are easily associated with femininity; they usually suggest an easy and tolerant attitude, a quiet and low-keyed nature, and a moderate and generous mind (Liu 2001, p. 244). In any case, the Taoist motherly wisdom of both Ziran and Wuwei aim to keep the oneness of all things, namely, the Qiwu principle, and ultimately to sustain the Tao.

Many Taoist female immortals, like Taoist male immortals, are divine teachers of Qiwu principle. This can be shown in Yunhua Furen’s (雲華夫人) teaching for Dayu (大禹):

The heaven and earth were originally a chaotic whole, and the sages divided them into two parts, and took some of them to build the human body. Then they excavated the earth resources as inexhaustible wealth and scattered them to human beings… All materials in human world are endowed with the sun, moon, and stars, and are formed and raised by the nature law. Therefore, human beings should comply with the nature laws, such as the lightening and darkening pattern of the sun and the moon, the weather changes of four seasons, the coming and going time of thunder and lightning, and the movement of wind and rain.

(X. Zhang 2001, p. 567)

The main idea of Yunhua Furen’s teaching is that Heaven, Earth, and human beings are in wholeness, human beings are part of Heaven and Earth, and all human activities are imitating and unified to the way of nature, so human beings should follow the doctrine of non-action and respect and comply with naturalness. In this way, all things will prosper as they are. Laozi claimed in chapter 52 that, “The world had a beginning, which can be considered the mother of the world. Having attained the mother, in order to understand her children. Having understood the children, if you return and hold on to the mother, till the end of your life you’ll suffer no harm” (天下有始，以爲天下母。既得其母，以知其子；既知其子，復守其母，沒身不殆。). In this stanza, the mother is the Tao and Nature. All things in the world are like the Tao or nature’s children. To understand the essential Tao so as to attain immortality, it is significant not only to maintain the naturalness of all things but also to remember the doctrine of non-action; only in this way can Taoists return and hold onto the mother and nature with life integrity.

It is worth pointing out that neither the Qiwu principle, including its motherly wisdom of Ziran and Wuwei, nor female immortals’ teaching of the Qiwu principle are stereotyped. Instead, the fact is that both men and women are required to follow the Qiwu principle and are able to have the motherly virtues of being natural and taking no actions. These motherly virtues are used as a metaphor of the Qiwu principle. That is why Xiaogan Liu comments that Laozi praises sage rulers who practice naturalness because they bring people and societies natural life, marked by peace and harmony (Liu 2001, p. 243). Likewise, the association of the Taoist doctrine of Wuwei and female attributes is made merely in terms of symbolization, which indicates the normative teaching for human beings, especially sage rulers on how to maintain the balance of the natural and social world. It is in this sense that the Qiwu principle is of great universal significance for environmental harmony and social justice.

Taoist female worship with the Qiwu principle is of great help for the re-thinking of the human–nature relationship. It reminds people to learn from Taoist immortals’ attitudes towards nature like selflessness, fairness, frugality, respect, and conformity. It warns that in front of infinite and profound nature, people should remain humble with awe and get rid of bias, superiority, and conquering posture, thus reaching the transcendent unconsciousness of crossing the boundary between human and nature. Laozi said, “I always have three treasures, which should be seriously kept and protected: charity, frugality, and dare not to take actions before others. Charity makes bravery, frugality makes generosity; non-action makes growth opportunity” (我恒有三寶，持而保之，一曰：慈，二曰：儉，三曰：不敢爲天下先。夫慈，故能勇；儉，故能廣：不敢爲天下先，故能爲成器長。) (Laozi 2011, p. 176). In the chapter “On the oneness of All Things” (齊物論) of Zhuangzi, Zhuangzi explicitly states, “there is nothing that is not the other” (物無非彼，物無非是。), “the one is out of the other, and the other is because of the one” (彼出于是，是亦因彼。) (Zhuangzi 2007, p. 32). Zhuangzi places the human equal to the non-human and allows all beings to grow on their own with naturalness and non-action, which the Qiwu principle of Taoist female worship believes to be the highest love for life. Baopuzi Neipian (《抱樸子內篇》15) also states, “The way of Heaven does nothing, and allows things to be natural; there is no affinity nor estrangement, and there is no one without the other” (天道無爲，任物自然，無親無疏，無彼無此也。) (M. Wang 1985, p. 124). The inherent mechanism of naturalness and non-action lies in that Taoism places human beings in a macroscopic universe to locate their own actions and fully realizes the special value of the coordinated relationships of the diversified universe (Zhan 2003, p. 65). That is why the principle of Qiwu promotes “motherly Tao, Tao modeling on Naturalness, natural non-action, and non-active governance” (玄牝之道、道法自然、自然無爲、無爲而治。), “non-action makes every action” (無爲而無不爲), which has been taken as the ethical principles for ecological construction and which is the same as the ecological feminist style of respecting and returning to nature instead of conquering nature.

3.2. The Principle of Zhuyin

Taoist female worship also promotes the principle of Zhuyin. Zhuyin means “honoring softness and appreciating femininity” (貴柔守雌). Starting from the idea that “the softness is the use of the Tao” (弱者道之用), Laozi emphasized that “the softest makes the strongest in the world” (天下之至柔，馳騁天下之至堅。) (Laozi 2011, p. 123) and “the femininity often overcomes the masculinity with stillness” (牝常以靜勝牡). Such a worldview connects Yin to the mysteries of the Tao. In the Taoist cosmic model of Yin and Yang, Yin is equal to Yang as one of the manifestations of power. The fundamental reason of Xiwangmu’s leadership and motherhood of all female immortals is that she is the highest representative of Yin (Li Yang 2000b, p. 9). Du Guangting, in the opening chapter of Yongcheng Jixian Lu, states that “Xiwangmu was born from the most wonderful Qi of Xihua mountain (西華山), coalesced from the extremely innate Yin, positioned in the east, motherly nurturing female immortals, and thus becoming the head of all the female immortals” (西王母乃西華之至妙，洞陰之極尊……體柔順之本，爲極陰之元，位配西方，母養群品，天上天下三界十方女子之登仙得道者，咸所隸焉。) (qtd. in Li Yang 2000b, p. 9).

The importance of Yin’s power in Taoist teachings can be seen in some Taoist classics. It is written that “The one with Tao uses Yin while the one without Tao uses Yang; Yang is measurable while Yin is inexhaustible” (凡有道之士用陰，無道之士用陽。 陽則可測，陰則不可窮也。) (qtd. in Zhan 1988, p. 19). Taiping Ching (《太平經》16) also attaches great importance to the value of Yin, femininity, and motherhood, believing that they occupy a more important position in the process of the harmonization between Yin and Yang. It said that “each thing has its double, with which it harmonizes, like heaven harmonizes with earth, the birth of Yang must take place in Yin, this law is the same for the people on the earth” (夫天地之生凡物也，兩爲一合。今是上天與是下地爲合。凡陽之生，必於陰中，故乃取於此地上人也。) (M. Wang 1997, p. 652). The Taiping Ching also pointed out that “The earth is the mother, the father is given by the mother, so it is in the Yin. The essence of Yang is given by the mother, which is the same as the heaven is given by the earth. It is difficult to see the first Qi of Yang’s transformation, only when it enters the Yin to take shape and becomes visible, so it is remembered in the Yin not in the Yang” (地爲母，父施於母，故於陰中也，其施陽精，同始發於天耳。陽者，其化始氣也微難睹，入陰中成形，乃着可見，故記其陰中，不記其陽也。) (M. Wang 1997, p. 11). Though these sayings might fall into an essential tendency, they showed the original thinking of Zhuyin philosophy. It can be said that the favoring and honoring of Yin’s power became one aspect with which Taoism has gradually developed the concept of female worship.

However, the paramount belief of the Zhuyin principle is Yinyang balance and harmony. It is essential that the Taoist female worship’s Zhuyin principle is not a perception of Yin’s superiority over Yang, but rather a worldview on Yinyang balance and harmony, one of the most important religious doctrines and one of the most fundamental philosophies of Taoism. Yinyang balance and harmony advocates Yin–Yang equality, believing that both Yin and Yang are important parts of the world. It is the underlying logic of gender justice in Taoism. Li Yang points out that whether there is equal opportunity for sainthood is one of the most important indicators of whether a religion has an equal conception of gender. Medieval Christian theologians repeatedly discussed the question of whether females had souls based on the Bible’s creation myths, and early Buddhism had a negative attitude toward the possibility of females becoming Buddhas, believing that only a female in a male body could become a Buddha. In contrast, the Taoist masters did not question the possibility of the female becoming immortal, and the issue was never raised, even by the opponents of the belief in immortality (Li Yang 2000a, p. 125). Clearly, the female and the male are equal in the issue of Taoist immortality, namely, the opportunity for the female to attain immortality is equal to that of the male. As stated in Yongcheng Jixian Lu, Yinyang balance and harmony is the core of Tao, it is the nurturing base of all things; it forms the continuity of non-stop birth and growth. So, Heaven covers all things while the Earth holds all things; clear gas and turbid gas have equal contributions; the sun shines and the moon gleams; day and night have level functions—all these binaries build the Heaven, Earth, and humankind. That is why Mugong (木公) is the king of the east while Jinmu (金母) is the queen of the west. Male and female immortals perform their own functions, ensuring the immortal world is in its proper order (qtd. in Li Yang 2000a, p. 126). Obviously, with the basis of Yinyang balance and harmony, gender justice is natural in the Taoist genealogy of immortals.

Yinyang balance and harmony not only lies in fair gender relationship but also lies in androgynous personalities. The phenomenon of androgyny is common among Taoist immortals because it is regarded as an ideal state of life in Taoism. Nüwa was originally the founding god who was both male and female and who created mankind out of the earth, and Xiwangmu was originally an omnipotent god who possessed the dual elements of the universe, such as east and west, sun and moon, and male and female, in one body (Lian 2017, pp. 380–81). Although Bixia Yuanjun is a goddess in appearance, she has achieved a state of androgyny in both her gender temperament and her divine functions (Lian 2017, p. 384). Likewise, some male immortals also show androgyny. Fuxi, like Nüwa, is commonly regarded as an androgynous immortal (Lian 2017, pp. 380–81). Charlotte Furth’s study found out that the “body of the Yellow Emperor” (黃帝) represents the idea of hermaphroditism and androgyny (Furth 1999, p. 23). In fact, for Taoists, androgyny does not exist particularly in Taoist immortals but in every person, even in everything. Yinyang balance and harmony is the birth of life; therefore, the maintenance of an individual’s Yinyang balance and harmony is important. It is fundamental to note that the Zhuyin principle reflects the Taoist cosmology that Yinyang balance and harmony creates all things (陰陽和合、化生萬物), which is named the Tao of Yinyang. Laozi wrote, “When you know masculinity yet hold on to femininity, you’ll be the ravine of the country. When you’re the ravine of the country, your constant virtue will not leave. And when your constant virtue doesn’t leave, you’ll return to the state of the infant.”知其雄，守其雌，爲天下溪。爲天下溪，常德不離，複歸于嬰兒。) (Laozi 2011, p. 75). That is why Laozi regarded Yinyang balance and harmony as one aspect of the Great Tao: “Tao begets one, one begets two, two begets three, and three begets all things. Everything contains Yin and Yang, and they interact to form a harmonious whole” (道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物。萬物負陰而抱陽，沖氣以爲和。) (Laozi 2011, p. 120). Taiping Ching states, “Nan (男)—Men and Nǚ (女)—women are the embodiment of Yin and Yang” (男女者，陰陽之本也。) (M. Wang 1997, p. 38), “The nature of heaven and earth is half Yin and half Yang” (天地之性，半陰半陽。) (M. Wang 1997, p. 702), and “A man cannot give birth to a child alone, and a woman cannot raise a child alone” (男不能獨生，女不能獨養。) (M. Wang 1997, p. 142). In other words, Taiping Ching believes that all things have both Yin and Yang, the whole universe was born out of Yinyang balance and harmony, while human beings began with the vital energy of the universal Heaven and Earth, which have Yin and Yang, so human beings also have Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang are in balance and harmony, so are men and women. It is from this basic Taoist cosmology of Yinyang balance and harmony that the Taiping Ching observes Heaven and Earth from afar, closely examines men and women, and regards the Yinyang balance and harmony as the Tao. It points out that, “there is nothing complex discourse in the Tao, and Yinyang balance and harmony is the core” (道無奇辭，一陰一陽，爲其用也。) (M. Wang 1997, p. 11). For many feminists, the underlying tenet of the Zhuyin principle is the ancient eastern mirror of modern feminist worldview. Such a tenet, like the feminist worldview, can be extended from promoting gender justice to advancing universal social justice.

Aside from the ontological importance, the Zhuyin principle of Taoist female worship also shows great ethical significance with respect to human–human relationships. Unlike other religions and cultures that repress and discriminate against the female, Taoist female worship advocates the Zhuyin principle, which highlights the social equality and justice. It can first be seen from the complex and extensive system of Taoist female worship, in which the division is not based on different identities but rather on the individual’s abilities to cultivate Taoism. As Ruiling Zhang states, “Taoism believes that not only can women become immortal independently, but also women of any class can become immortal” (R. Zhang 2007, p. 69). Suping Li also points out that Taoism’s idea of becoming immortal is inclusive, open-minded, and flexible, and it does not hold any discrimination or prejudice against women’s cultivation of immortality. It even makes no distinction of gender, class, intelligence, and appearance (S. Li 2001, p. 43). Yinyang balance and harmony shows the ethical significance of maintaining harmonious social relationships. Shichuang Zhan points out that “Laozi not only clarifies that everything has a basis for existence in terms of Yinyang, but also takes ‘harmony’ as the beautiful and good realm for the existence and development of all beings” (Zhan 2003, p. 64). Taoists believe that in order to cultivate the Tao of immortality, one must first become a human being, that learning to be a human being is a prerequisite for the sublimation of life, and that the principle of Yinyang balance and harmony is a prerequisite for learning to be a human being. Therefore, for Taoism, Yinyang balance and harmony is not only a synonym for the gender relationship but also a metaphor for the unity of all differences in the ethical relationship of human–human in social activities. In short, in the tradition of Taoist female worship, Yinyang balance and harmony is the mother of all things, the root of great transformation, and the most basic existence in the universe. It gives birth to all things and embodies the cosmic view of life. It is the fundamental principle not only for dealing with gender relationships but also for regulating relationships among all human beings.

3.3. The Principle of Xujing

In addition to the principles of Qiwu and Zhuyin, Taoist female worship also emphasizes the Xujing principle. To some extent, the Xujing principle is the starting point for a Taoist during the process of Taoist cultivation, with the doctrine of “keeping the mind in a state of complete humility and tranquility without being affected” (致虛極, 守靜笃。). From a feminist viewpoint, Xujing highlights the feminine wisdom of being humble, tranquil, simple, peaceful, etc., thus becoming one of the primary principles of Taoist female worship. Chapter 16 of Tao Te Ching fully shows the importance of Xujing and the association of Xujing wisdom and motherly virtue. Laozi said, “I try to make the humility of the mind as great as possible, so that the tranquility of life will remain unchanged. Because I have examined the life cycle of all flourished things and found the law of nature: all things flourish by returning to motherly root which is called humility and tranquility, and humility and tranquility makes life vitality and longevity. One cannot recognize this law of nature often causes chaos and disasters, whereas one can recognize this law of nature is called being wise and all-encompassing, open-minded, fair, and comprehensive, and will be able to conform to the natural Tao, so he can live a long life and ultimately achieve immortality.” (致虛極，守靜笃。萬物並作，吾以觀復。夫物芸芸，各復歸其根。歸根曰靜，是謂復命。復命曰常，知常曰明。不知常，妄作凶。知常容，容乃公，公乃全，全乃天，天乃道，道乃久，沒身不殆。) (Laozi 2011, p. 39). The Xujing principle, symbolized with feminine virtues, can be further explained by the Taoist doctrines of Xu (虛) and Jing (靜).

In addition to the definition of Qianxu (謙虛)—humility, modesty, or open-mindedness—Xu can also be defined by Xuwu (虛無)—emptiness, nothingness, or simplicity. Though they have different emphasized aspects, they are compatible. Xuwu emphasizes the formal essence of Xu, while Qianxu highlights the spiritual essence of Xu. In form, only emptiness, nothingness, or simplicity can embrace existence; while in spirit, only humility, modesty, or open-mindedness can make progress. Xu is symbolized by the motherly virtue of selflessly giving birth to all beings; as Gang Li concludes after his analysis of Xishengching (《西升經》17), the motherly Tao is the Taoist emptiness and nothingness, which gives birth to, contains, and nurtures all existences, thus being called the abyss of Tao (G. Li 2017, p. 304). Xu is also symbolized by the feminine features of being low-keyed, patient, and inclusive. This can be seen from Laozi’s repeated use of the valley and the water to symbolize feminine Xu. In chapter 6, Laozi equates the immortal valley to the mysterious mother (谷神不死，是謂玄牝). In chapter 8, Laozi greatly advocates the feminine Tao of being humble and virtuous like water: “Water is beneficial for all things without competition. It is located in humble places rejected by others. It is for this humble virtue and low-keyed position; water is exactly the example of feminine Tao.” (水善利萬物而不爭，處衆人之所惡，故幾于道。) (Laozi 2011, p. 22). Hence, there are some famous Chinese sayings like “having a mind as humble as a valley” (虛懷若谷) and “having the best virtue like water”(上善若水).

Likewise, for Jing, there are several meanings, such as Qingjing (清靜)—tranquility, quietness, and serenity—and Ningjing (甯靜)—peacefulness, stillness, or calmness. Jing is highly praised by Laozi. In chapter 15 of Tao Te Ching, it is written that “Who can stop flowing like a muddy stream of water and become quiet and slowly tranquil? Who can remain silent for a long time like the grass and trees, yet sprout vitality without ceasing? He who maintains the above essentials of the Tao refuses to be complacent. Precisely because he is never complacent, he is able to remove the old and renew the new.” (孰能濁以靜之徐清？孰能安以久動之徐生？保此道者不欲盈，夫唯不盈，故能蔽不新成。) (Laozi 2011, p. 37). Laozi says in chapter 26 that “Calmness is the root of frivolousness, stillness is the king of restlessness, so the saints do not walk away from calmness and stillness all day long. Or they will lose the root with frivolousness, and fail the king with restlessness” (重爲輕根，靜爲躁君，是以聖人終日行不離辎重。輕則失本，躁則失君。) (Laozi 2011, p. 71). Laozi also argues that in chapter 45 that “Impatience surpasses coldness, tranquility surpasses hotness, tranquility is the righteousness of the world” (躁勝寒，靜勝熱，清靜爲天下正。) (Laozi 2011, p. 127). Such virtues of Qingjing—tranquility, quietness, and serenity—and Ningjing—peacefulness, stillness, or calmness—are often venerated by Taoists as the feminine features. This veneration can be seen in the above-mentioned chapter 25 of Tao Te Ching, where Laozi proclaims the tranquil and peaceful oneness of all things to be the mother of all beings (有物混成......寂兮寥兮......可以爲天下母。) (Laozi 2011, p. 65). Again, like Xu, femininity serves as the symbol of Taoist doctrine of Jing. In fact, Xu and Jing are not discrete; instead, they are the two complementary sides of an integral whole intended to fully demonstrate the Taoist female worship’s principle of Xujing.

How, then, to practice the Xujing principle? Zhuangzi put forward Xinzhai (心齋) and Zuowang (坐忘). Xinzhai refers to the concentration of the mind without distraction, concentrating on the transforming ear-listening to heart-listening and, further, to breath-listening to free the senses from the complexity of the world (Zhan 1990, pp. 78–79). Zuowang means sitting in oblivion to “forget one’s body, abandon one’s cleverness, keep free from the bonds of form and intelligence, and merge with the great Tao as one” (隳支體，黜聰明，離形去智，同于大通。) (Zhuangzi 2007, p. 141). In other words, Zuowang enables people to perceive internal peace without being constrained by external desires, thus arriving at a state of open-mindedness and enlightenment. Accordingly, there were twelve practicing processes of the Xujing principle with Xinzhai and Zuowang: awakening the perception of soul (一靈獨覺法), obliterating external chaos and keeping internal peace (泯外守中法), meditating on heart and keeping unity (冥心守一法), fastening mind and controlling orifices (系心守竅法), emptying heart and fulfilling lower abdomen (虛心實腹法), connecting mind with breath (心息相依法), concentrating attention and illuminating stillness (凝神寂照法), returning to light and regaining observation (回光返照法), resting mind and stopping thoughts (息心止念法), thinking about the eternal Tao (存想谷神法), resting delusions and sticking to truth (息妄全真法), and returning to the original simple state (返還先天法) (Xiao 2017, pp. 251–58).

The Xujing principle, with the practical methods of Xinzhai and Zuowang, can be traced back to Xuanmu’s (玄母) ritual of Taoist cultivation. According to the Shangqing Yuanshi Bianhua Baozhen Zhen Shangching (《上清元始變化寶真上經》18), “to practice the cultivation ritual of Xuanmu, one should take a bath and empty stomach, enter the room, face the southeast, make nine obeisances, then sit in a flat position facing the north, knock on the teeth for nine times, and finally contemplate Xuanmu with eyes closed following four seasons’ forms and shadows in the Nine Heavens (九天) and in the Qionglin Qiying Zhigong (瓊林七暎之宮)……” (qtd. in Zhan 1990, p. 80). This ritual focuses on eliminating distracting thoughts and entering a state of humility and tranquility to harmonize body and mind, becoming a typical practice of the Xujing principle. Many female Taoists, equal to male Taoists, are the model immortals in practicing Xujing principle. For example, Guanfu Huang (黃觀福), a banished Shangqing immortal (上清谪仙), was devoted to the Taoist practice of keeping inner peace and tranquility, eating cypress leaves and sitting in silence all day long since childhood, and successfully returned to the immortal world (Li Yang 2000a, p. 88). According to the collections of female immortals, Shangxian Dong (董上仙) was “good at keeping in tranquility and harmony”; Wangshi (王氏) “stayed alone in a quiet room with burning incense and inner peace”; Wangshi Nǚ (王氏女) “was good at self-purification by keeping still for a longtime”; and Xiaoyao Qi (戚逍遙) “was good at quietness and simplicity” (Li Yang 2000a, pp. 84–88). They carried out the practices of concentrating on the mind (專志), observing the inner world (內觀), smoothing the breath (順氣), and stopping the chaos (止亂), thus arriving at the realm of quietness and selflessness (虛空忘我), the unity of the nature and self (天人合一), and finally attaining Taoist immortality. Their life stories show the efficiency of the Xujing principle, especially the Xinzhai and Zuowang practices. In the world’s various religions, few but Taoism offer equal opportunities for men and women. It is said that in Taoist cultivation there were some special cases in which women could achieve immortality more easily than men because women had special physiology and psychology, so they could enjoy the benefits of this priority (Chen 1989, p. 152). Fan Furen was an example. In the Jin Dynasty (晉朝), the couple Gang Liu and Yunjiao Fan practiced immortality together, and Fan Furen’s immortality skills surpassed Gang Liu’s, embodying the idea of female immortals overpowering male immortals (Yi 2016, p. 126).

However, it is significant to claim that Xujing is not a gendered principle but a normative principle. It is normative for both men and women. In other words, empirically, feminine virtues like Qianxu—humility, modesty, or open-mindedness; Xuwu—emptiness, nothingness, or simplicity; Qingjing—tranquility, quietness, and serenity; and Ningjing—peacefulness, stillness, or calmness, may be found more often in women, but the normative truth is that men also have these qualities. They are the noble traits of nature, from which human beings should learn; they befit not only human beings but also for the whole universe. Simultaneously, it is also necessary to claim that Xujing, with the above-mentioned practices of Xinzhai and Zuowang, is not gendered and stereotyped to be exclusively for women. The noteworthy point is that all words related to female or male are used only in the sense of a metaphor and refer more essentially to normative meanings for human life. It is in this sense that the Xujing principle is of great significance for human individual cultivation. The Xujing principle is of great importance to maintaining the balance and harmony of the human–self relationship. According to Shichuang Zhan, Taoist female immortals, equal to Taoist male immortals, should practice the Xujing principle, which consists of two major levels: one is to refine the form and transform the body, another is to accumulate virtues and refine morality; the two levels are complementary to each other and form an organic whole (Zhan 1990, p. 84). In the Taoist immortal world, Pengzu’s (彭祖) method of prolonging life has been circulated; by having Yuanjun Taiyi Jindan (元君太一金丹) or taking herbs, the joints of Yinyang Qi can travel without any stagnation in either bending or stretching; by nourishing the spirit with good deeds and refining the soul while sitting in oblivion, one can live long, ascend to Heaven, and become immortal (X. Zhang 2001, p. 561). Cainǚ (采女) grasped the essentials of Pengzu’s method, appeared like a maiden of fifteen or sixteen years old when she was actually two hundreds and seventy years old, and joined the female immortal system; moreover, she instructed the method to the King of Shang (商王), and he prolonged his life to 300 years old (X. Zhang 2001, p. 561). Laozi says, “I am in great worry because I have a body; if I had no body, what worry would I be in? Therefore, if the preciousness of one’s body is for the purpose of contributing for the world, the world can be entrusted to him; and if the love of one’s body is for the purpose of benefiting the world, the world can be depended on him” (吾所以有大患者，爲吾有身， 及吾無身，吾有何患？故貴以身爲天下，若可寄天下；愛以身爲天下，若可托天下。) (Laozi 2011, p. 32). It can be seen that at the level of human–self relationship, body and mind play equal roles: the purpose of refining the form and transforming the body is to better accumulate virtues, and only by moral practice can the form be refined and the body be transformed.

In brief, based on traditional Taoist doctrines and contemporary feminist interpretations, Taoist female worship advocates the classical principles of Qiwu, Zhuyin, and Xujing in dealing with human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. These principles condense the core of Tao Te Ching: to follow the Tao (道)—the origin, operating law, and returning of the universe; and to promote the Te (德)—morality, virtues, or ethics. These principles do not operate independently but are inseparable, complementary, and mutually reinforcing. They have had different receptions at different times and have inspired various historical practices. In contemporary times, with the growing ecological, social, and personal crises, there is an urgent need to find solutions. Driven culture root-seeking thoughts, Taoist female worship, as an oriental religious tradition and a cultural symbolism of Tao, has been revived, and its classical principles have been inherited and developed into some new practical concepts applicable in the contemporary context, playing an important role in the re-construction of ethical relationships and the resolution of worldwide crises.

4. The Contemporary Practices of Taoist Female Worship

The contemporary era is characterized by high-level globalization, complex social relations, and increasing physical and mental illnesses. It is a time full of natural, social, and personal crises. In Chinese history, there is an old law that Taoism has always been able to rescue the situation in troubled times (Nan 2012, p. 9). This is because Taoism regards the persuasion of benevolence to be one of its most important religious functions (X. Zhang 2001, p. 191). Taoist female worship, as a religious tradition of Taoism, also regards virtue persuasion as one of its important contents and spiritual interests. All of the Taoist immortals, male or female, are venerated because of their laudable virtues. The reason why Xiwangmu has been the top female immortal for thousands of years is precisely because of her everlasting function as an ethical model. The revered status of the other immortals is likewise dependent on their ethical edification in response to the evolution of time. In fact, as analyzed in Part 3, Taoist female worship has a significant function of ethical enlightenment with respect to human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships. Even though Taoist female worship is far away from contemporary daily life in terms of religious rituals, its ethical significance has never faded; instead, its function of being a cultural metaphor of Tao still subtly influences the contemporary world and contributes to Chinese wisdom confronting the contemporary crises for the whole world. Specifically, interpreted under the perspective of contemporary feminism, the Qiwu principle has been developed into the ethical practice of thingness re-enchantment, helping modern people to rethink the human–nature relationship and establish sustainable ecological ethics to solve the ecological crisis. The Zhuyin principle has evolved into the practical view of world harmony, guiding people to reflect on the ethical human–human relationship and to reshape a harmonious social ethical outlook to cope with the social crisis. The Xujing principle functions as the ethical foundation of contemporary practices of self-cultivation, driving people to reflect on the human–self relationship and to build a positive life ethics to remove themselves from personal crisis.

4.1. The Practice of Thingness Re-Enchantment

The Qiwu principle has been developed into thingness re-enchantment, aiming to help people construct sustainable ecological ethics to cope with ecological crises. The term “thingness” refers to the “the vital thingness of all things”. Thingness re-enchantment refers to the restoration of the charm of all things’ vital “thingness”. It inherited the essence of Zhuangzi’s Qiwu theory, which is well-manifested in the story of “Zhuangzhou Dreams of a Butterfly” (莊周夢蝴蝶), which talks about the mutual transformation of Zhuangzhou and a butterfly in a dream and expounds the transformation and trans-corporeality of the human and the non-human. It is also inspired by the story of Xiwangmu, who embodies the five elements of gold, wood, water, fire, and earth, which also well-illustrates the transformation and trans-corporeality of the human and the non-human. With the inheritance and inspiration from Zhuangzi’s and Xiwangmu’s stories, thingness re-enchantment highlights thingness’s transformation and trans-corporeality among all things. Transformation and trans-corporeality stress the dynamic of the material transportation of all things according to material feminist thoughts (Alaimo and Hekman 2008, p. 14). In this sense, thingness re-enchantment criticizes anthropocentrism and egocentrism. It believes that with the transformation and trans-corporeality, all things become one, so there is no more discrimination between one and the other. Holding this belief, thingness re-enchantment aims to revive the enchantment of vital thingness which has been repressed during the last centuries. By recovering the common sense that everyone and everything came from and will return to the vital thingness, the equal relationship between the human and the non-human can be revived.

If the Qiwu principle expresses Taoist simple materialist thought which regards Taoist Qi as the unit oneness of all things (X. Yang 2017b, p. 68), then thingness re-enchantment highlights the new materialist thought of “contemporary Neo-Taoism” (Dong 1991, p. 2), which takes the energetic quantum as the vital thingness. In other words, it pays closer attention to the vital thingness than to the unit oneness. It believes that both peripheral material like Qi or quanta and macroscopic materials like Heaven or Earth are the energetic beings with vital thingness in them, and all the things are in a vital isomorphic and mutually sensible whole (X. Yang 2017b, p. 68). However, it also believes that both the unit oneness and the vital thingness are natural organisms with vital life, active agency, dynamic power, and ever-lasting trans-corporeality. It argues that both the unit oneness and the vital thingness will return to nature. Namely, they are the two aspects of nature: the unit oneness is the epistemological and ontological basis of nature; while the vital thingness is the methodological and empirical embodiment of nature. On this basis, the Qiwu principle highlighting the unit oneness comparatively emphasizes more of the religious goal of Taoist naturalness and mystical immortality, while thingness re-enchantment emphasizing that the vital thingness is more catering to the contemporary status quo and is thus more applicable to the general public in solving realistic problems, especially the environmental crisis.

Thingness re-enchantment believes that both the unit oneness and the vital thingness are materialistic and exist ahead of humanity. However, this is not to stress the priority of thingness over humanity but to oppose the discrimination and bias against thingness during the past centuries and revive the enchantment and importance of thingness. In fact, using word “re-enchantment”, thingness re-enchantment aims to restore the equality between thingness and humanity and return to the harmonious relationship of human–nature. On this basis, to confront the environmental crisis, thingness re-enchantment practically puts forward sustainable ecological ethics, including the Heaven and Earth ethic as well as the animal and plant ethic.

With the legacy of the Taoist viewpoint of Heaven and Earth, thingness re-enchantment proposes principles and practices of the Heaven and Earth ethic. Taiping Ching states that the Heaven and Earth are the father and mother of all things (M. Wang 1997, p. 120). Heaven is regarded as the father of all things, whose wind, rain, thunder, and lightning are the physical and mental activities of the father. Taiping Ching compares the Earth to a mother’s body, and the various components of the Earth are like the organs and tissues of the mother, believing that spring water is her blood, stone is her bone, and earth is her flesh, all of which have her spirits and feelings; therefore, human beings should treat the Heaven and Earth as their father and mother, that is, with great cherishing and caring (Zhan 2003, p. 65). Thingness re-enchantment identifies with the Taoist idea of celestial induction; it believes that the occurrence of natural disasters is closely related to human behaviors, so people should look for the causes and solutions in their own behaviors. Thingness re-enchantment advocates the attitude towards disasters of Nüwa. It says, in ancient times, that the four poles were abolished, the nine continents were split up, the Heavens cannot cover, the Earth cannot carry, the fires and waters were unquenchable, the beasts ate the people, and the preying birds seized the old and the weak, so Nüwa refined the five-colored stone to mend the Heaven, broke the whole to establish the four poles, killed the black dragon to help Jizhou (濟州), and accumulated ashes to stop the fires and waters (X. Zhang 2001, p. 549). Nüwa’s practice in mending Heaven shows the ethical code that confronts crises: humankind should actively rectify the human–nature relationship to maintain the ecological balance. It also represents Nüwa’s wisdom of Sancai Xiangdao (三才相盜): Heaven, Earth, and human beings depend on each other; human beings draw nourishment from Heaven and Earth for existence; human beings steal energy from all things for survival and development; and all things receive material creation from human beings; therefore, human beings should live in harmony with Heaven and Earth and sense each other with their own closely related periphery to achieve the unity of Heaven, Earth, and humankind, or else human beings will suffer in danger (Liu Yang 2014, p. 50). Deeply rooted in the collective unconsciousness of Nüwa’s wisdom, thingness re-enchantment also believes that Heaven and Earth are living organisms; if they are ill or destroyed, human beings will also face the same fate; namely, humankind is a part of nature, and human activities are subjected to the laws of nature. Therefore, when facing disasters, human beings should first make up for their misdoings towards nature before they can save themselves. On this basis, thingness re-enchantment fights against unlimited exploitation, expansive production, and excessive consumption. This sustainable Heaven and Earth ethic has led to a growing awareness of environmental protection in society, families, and individuals, and a gradual increase in environmental protection actions.

With the inheritance of the Taoist motherly virtues of Ziran and Wuwei, thingness re-enchantment proposes practices of an animal and plant ethic. Either Ziran or Wuwei believe in the vital thingness of all beings, which can be seen from the common animatism of all things, just as Shichuang Zhan points out that Taoism upholds the theory of animatism based on the position that everything has the essence of Tao (Zhan 2003, p. 65). In Taoism, all beings are the creatures of the essential Tao, the four seasons and five elements are also the essential Tao of Heaven and Earth; the six animals and the beasts, the plants, and vegetables are the divine treasures composed of the four seasons and the five elements of the universe. Accordingly, there are a large number of precepts requiring people to correctly treat the ecological environment of Heaven and Earth, human beings, plants, and animals, with “abstaining from killing” (戒殺生) as the major precept and an important principle in dealing with the relationship between human beings and the environment (Lin 2007, p. 36). It promotes benevolence for animals and plants, “If an animal is in danger, human beings should help it, which in return will protect human beings not to be harmed by any evil in the world” (qtd. in Zhan 2003, p. 61). It requires that “one should not burn the fields, mountains, and forests with fire, and one should not pick the flowers and grasses… one should not cut down the forests randomly” (qtd. in Zhan 2003, p. 62). On this basis, thingness re-enchantment also requires the plant and animal ethical practices of anti-killing or injuring any living things, anti-burning wild fields or mountains, anti-cutting down trees, anti-picking flowers or plants, anti-polluting rivers, anti-exhausting natural sources, anti-over-fishing and hunting, and anti-going up a tree to look for nests and breaking eggs, etc. Thingness re-enchantment requires human beings to care for animals and plants, to help animals and plants to relieve themselves out of difficulties, and to protect the diversity of species. These ethical practices can protect the ecological environment and maintain the harmony between human and nature. As all things are fundamentally linked with each other, and human beings cannot be purely autonomous in existence, the ethical practices of thingness re-enchantment are not only beneficial for the environment but also for mankind’s safety, health, and happiness.

Thingness re-enchantment re-announces Laozi’s three treasures of keeping charity, maintaining frugality, and daring not to take actions before others with ecological concern. It requires people to take the lifestyles of subtraction, non-possession, minimalism, and vegetarianism. Such lifestyles contain the simple idea of ecological balance and the unity of all things, which not only protects Heaven, Earth, animals, and plants but also benefits human beings. In other words, thingness re-enchantment shows great sympathy and respect for non-human nature, non-human animals, and plants. It is characterized by a sense of cosmic wholeness and the ethical practices of ecological balance and harmony. With the ethic of Heaven and Earth, as well as the ethic of animal and plant, the unit oneness, vital thingness, material spontaneity, and energetic dynamism of all existence are highlighted, while consumerism, materialism, and money worship are questioned and reflected upon. As a consequence, the benign and balanced ecological chain can be preserved, the tensions between human beings and nature can be alleviated, the justice between human beings and animals and plants can be achieved, and the ecological crisis is expected to be resolved.

4.2. The Practice of Harmony World

The principle of Zhuyin, based on Yinyang balance, has evolved into the contemporary concept of harmony world, which guides mankind to rebuild social ethics in dealing with social crises. Shichuang Zhan points out that the social ethics of Taoism emphasizes Yinyang balance and harmony, which are thought-provoking and practical for maintaining the harmonious and benign development of society (Zhan 2003, p. 59). It believes that not only are men and women born of Yinyang harmony; different nations are also born of it. It advocates an open and inclusive mindset to re-examine all kinds of antagonistic social relationships to promote the construction of social harmony (Luo 2017, p. 363). Qitan Lin argues that as the highest classic of Taoism, Tao Te Ching’s social thought is mainly against oppression and war and advocates social justice; the ideal society of “a small country with few people” (小國寡民) to be constructed shows us a harmonious world with no wars, no exploitation, no oppression, living and working in peace and contentment, enjoying oneself, and tranquility and beauty (Lin 2007, p. 35). Inspired by Laozi’s advice to achieve a “Xuantong Shijie” (玄同世界)—ideal world, based on the cosmology of Yinyang balance and harmony—harmony world advocates ten practical norms: anti-gender oppression; anti-classical exploitation; anti-national injustice; anti-war; anti-over taxation; anti-interference; anti-extravagance in production, population, and consumerism; anti-polarization between the rich and the poor; anti-hijacking of social wealth by a few people; anti-monopoly of major powers.

As we can see, the Zhuyin principle has evolved into the universal social practices of harmony world. The relationship between the two concepts contains two aspects. On the one hand, they share their underlying cosmology of Yinyang balance and harmony. They both hold the worldview that every person, each group, and every nation contain Yin and Yang without belonging exclusively to either Yin or Yang. The double-fish-circle perfectly reflects this idea, which is not only the symbol Taoism but also the metaphor of harmony world. On the other hand, they are different, first, with respect their applicable people; the former was put forward mainly for the Taoist population, while the latter is practical for the general public. Meanwhile, the former is the epistemological and ontological foundation of the latter, while the latter is the methodological and empirical practice of the former. Specifically, the Zhuyin principle is closely bonded with the Taoist purpose of immortality; while harmony world is specifically catering to resolve contemporary social crises caused by unjust human–human relationships for ordinary people. Therefore, a harmonious world particularly focuses on familial and national relationship, which are key to society harmony. Based on the core of harmony, it proposes the ethical practices of family harmony and international peace so as to guide people to rebuild human–human relationship remove themselves from social crisis.

The harmonious world learns from the principle of Zhuyin and puts forward harmonious family ethics. In the Taoist female immortal world, women’s lives are as important as men’s. It is of boundless beneficence for immortals to save lives and maintain Yinyang orders. Xiwangmu is the most revered female immortal precisely because she adopted and guarded abandoned women and raised thousands of daughters, and she even found appropriate male immortals to be husbands in her dual roles as a leader and a mother (Li Yang 2000a, p. 64). Obviously, Xiwangmu plays an important role in family protection. The concept of the harmonious world draws its nourishment from the Taoist female worship system and follows the principles of application of both masculinity and femininity, the complementation of Yin and Yang, the unity of male and female, as well as the coupling of the rigid and the soft. It puts forward a series of family ethics. It believes that family harmony is a prerequisite for the realization of social harmony, while male–female harmony is a necessary condition for family harmony, and cherishing women is a prerequisite for male–female harmony. In view of this, it not only protects women’s lives and status by criticizing patriarchal bias and the brutalization of women, it also empowers and respects women’s right to achieve their ideal personalities by endorsing and supporting women’s pursuit of their values inside and outside the family. Embedded in Taoist female followers’ family life stories, harmony world encourages women to acquire inspirations and courage to establish self-identity and self-realization by becoming economically independent, creating social relationships, and constructing independent personalities, thus transcending the social norms of patriarchal traditions.

The noteworthy point is that when claiming that cherishing women or applying femininity is a prerequisite for male–female harmony, it is neither belittling men or masculinity nor stereotyping males or females. Instead, by supporting women or urging femininity, it is opposing the common discrimination and bias against women of the dominant society. The fact is that harmony world upholds the position of equality between men and women, clarifies the interdependent and inseparable relationship between men and women, and suggests that men and women should learn from each other so as to attain gender complementation and win–win cooperation. With the practice of the family ethics of harmony world, the conflicts caused by the logocentric dichotomy framework can be alleviated, a harmonious family order can be established, and social harmony can be basically guaranteed.

Harmony world also learns from the Taoist cosmology of Yinyang balance and harmony and comes up with the nation ethic to attain world peace. Taoism’s appreciation for femininity lies in the feminine wisdom of living selflessly, humbly, and inclusively like water, which is embracing, raising, and benefiting all things without striving for fame and fortune (Cheng 2017, p. 328). Such wisdom is inspiring for national and international issues. Laozi said, “A great nation should be like the river and sea, resting in a humble place, so that all the nations can meet there. The feminine power lies in their serenity, tranquility, and humility. Likewise, if a big country can be humble to a small country, it will surely be able to gain the trust and attachment of the small country; if a small country can be humble to a big country, it will also be able to gain the trust and support of the big country” (大邦者下流。天下之牝，天下之交也。牝恒以靜取勝牡，以靜爲下。故大邦以下小邦，則取小邦；小邦以下大邦，則取大邦。) (Laozi 2011, p. 164). Laozi also said that “The river and the sea can be the king of hundreds of valleys because they are good at being at the lower positions. If the sages are humble in words, selfless in front of fame and wealth, and inclusive for differences, they can win the respect, support, and compliance of people, because they don’t contend with the people, there is no one who can contend with him” (江海所以能爲百谷王者，以其善下之也，是以能爲佰谷王。是以聖人之欲上民也，必以其言下之；其欲先民也，必以其身後之。是以聖人處上而民不重，處前而民不害。是以天下樂推而不厭。以其不爭，故天下莫能與之爭。) (Laozi 2011, p. 175). Based on Taoist wisdom in international issues, harmony world puts forward a national ethic of fairness, openness, and justice. It advocates that the great nations should learn from the humble river and sea or gentle and inclusive femininity and establish harmonious diplomatic relations based on humility and inclusion. It puts forward the ethical practices like generate prosperity in harmony (和衷共濟), cooperate to achieve double wins (合作共贏), grow together in peace (和平相處), seek common ground while holding back differences (求同存異), embrace different civilizations and cultures(兼容並包), collaborate towards a common goal in the same boat (同舟共進), develop parallelly without contradicting each other (齊頭並進), benefit from each other’s strengths and make up each other’s shortfalls (互通有無), etc.

Simultaneously, harmony world follows Taoist negative attitudes towards the army in several chapters of Tao Te Ching. In chapter 30, Laozi criticized that “Those who support their masters with the Tao do not use their soldiers to rule the world, because everything has a cause and effect. Thorns and thistles are born wherever the army is located. After the war, there will be an inauspicious year. Goodness leads to goodness, so dare not to take the fierceness.” (以道佐人主者，不以兵強天下，其事好還。師之所處，荊棘生焉。大軍之後，必有凶年。善有果而已，不敢以取強。) (Laozi 2011, p. 80) In chapter 31, Laozi reinforced his criticism that “The good army is an ominous weapon. All things hate it, so the saint with Tao does not favor it. It must not be used unless it is a last resort, because peace is the top morality. If one has to wins a war, he should not be happy and proud. Otherwise, he is bloodthirsty, and will never fulfil his ambition. Auspicious things are placed left while sinister things are positioned right. Literary generals are placed on the left while military generals are located on the right, who are treated with the funeral rites. Namey, killers should be sorry with sadness and tears, and a victorious battle should be treated with funeral rites.” (夫佳兵者，不祥之器。物或惡之，故有道者不處。兵者，不樣之器，非君子之器。不得已而用之，恬淡爲上，勝而不美。而美之者，是樂殺人。夫樂殺人者，側不可以得志于天下矣。吉事尚左，凶事尚右。偏將軍居左，上將軍居右，言以喪禮處之。殺人之衆，以哀悲泣之。戰勝，以喪禮處之。) (Laozi 2011, p. 83) Highly identifying with Laozi’s positive attitudes towards war, harmony world believes that life vitality is characterized by softness, inclusiveness, and harmony, while deathly lifelessness is characterized by hardness, discrimination, and violence; therefore, a strong army will never be victorious because its powerful, violence, and bias are hated and opposed by the whole world. On the contrary, harmony, peace, and love are the source of vital life, the birth of all beings, and the home of all peoples. Therefore, harmony world advocates harmony diplomacy, publicizes peace, opposes violence, and protests any unjust fiercely contested and costly wars. Such nation ethics have become the solid foundation and value support for the construction of a community of human destiny in the new era, which can help mankind to effectively confront social crises.

4.3. The Practice of Self-Cultivation

Last but not least, the Xujing principle has been inherited and developed by the trend of self-cultivation, which guides contemporary people to construct a positive life ethic to resolve personal crises. According to Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn, it is essential for the Xujing principle to equally cultivate body and mind, which is called “Xingming Shuangxiu” (性命雙修)—the “dual cultivation of inner nature and destiny” (Despeux and Kohn 2003, p. 211). Yuhui Yang also points out that the Xujing principle advocates Xingming Shuangxiu to maintain longevity and spiritual immortality (Y. Yang 2017c, p. 144). On this basis, self-cultivation puts forward the life ethic of Xingshen Shuangxiu (形神雙修)—dual cultivation of form and spirit to maintain a balanced and harmonious human–self relationship. Weitao Yang points out that Taoist ethical wisdom in the human–self relationship helps people to realize the true nature and value of life in the present society, which is surrounded by material and secular life (W. Yang 2017a, p. 223). The cultivation of form (形) means taking good care of the body through daily mindful clothing, eating, housing, and exercising, etc., to maintain physical health and beauty. The cultivation of spirit (神) refers to mind purification and moral refinement to perfect the soul and maintain benevolence. The double cultivation of form and spirit can work together to achieve life vitality and spiritual fulfillment.

It is worth noting that though deeply rooted in the dual cultivation of body and mind, the dual cultivation of form and spirit still has some differences from the former. First, the former often stresses the power of bedchamber arts (房中術), with an appreciation of the role of female sexuality in achieving longevity and immortality, while the latter does not stress sexuality, longevity, or immortality; instead, it advocates a tempered lifestyle in each aspect of daily life to improve life quality. Second, the former places a high premium on the cultivation of Qi, namely, Neidan (內丹)—internal alchemy practice, advocating that one cultivate essence (養精), refine breath (煉氣), and condense spirit (凝神) so as to reach longevity and immortality; whereas the later attaches great importance to meditation (冥想) and sitting still (靜坐). Third, in refining morality, the former foregrounds Qianxu, Ziran, and Wuwei, while the later combines Taoist ethical principles with the Confucian ethics of loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, and righteousness (忠孝仁義). It is obvious that self-cultivation with dual cultivation of form and spirit is catering to the contemporary time, which is characterized by religious syncretism; it not only highlights the importance of body vitality and mental health but also puts special emphasis on ethical education to deal with moral crisis. Despite these differences, the Xujing principle and self-cultivation are fundamentally common. The Xujing principle is the original source, the basic logic, and underlying principle of self-cultivation.

Based on the Xujing principle of reshaping the form, self-cultivation pays great attention to the practical cultivation of the body. Taoism’s aim is to prolong life and achieve longevity and immortality, so it attaches great importance to the health of body. According to Shichuang Zhan, in the view of Taoists, keeping one’s form intact and healthy is not only a basic requirement for a person to live a lifetime; it is also an inevitable manifestation of natural law (Zhan 2003, p. 61). On this basis, in order to cultivate the body, self-cultivation advocates that we learn from the Xujing principle, especially its wisdom of Xinzhai. It promotes the simplicity and purification of the body by adopting a minimalist lifestyle. It believes the to simplify or purifying the body is a process of continuous relaxation for the sake of physical health and freedom. Self-cultivation suggests following Laozi’s promotion of “embracing simplicity and thrifty, possessing less self-interests and desires” (見素抱樸，少思寡欲) (Laozi 2011, p. 48). Additionally, self-cultivation promotes that everyone should adopt the mindful lifestyle; it requires people to mindfully eat healthy food, have cloth with natural fabrics, live in a clean house, and engage in gentle exercises like Taijiquan (太極拳) and Baduanjin (八段錦) to reach a state of bodily purification, simplicity, and vitality.

Self-cultivation also attaches great importance to the cultivation of the spirit. It strongly recommends Zhuangzi’s Zuowang practice by meditating and sitting still to attain inner peace. Youhui Shu elucidated, “The key to cultivate one’s body lies in the cultivation of spirit, namely getting rid of distracting thoughts and clearing one’s mind of all desires; if the one’s mind is peaceful, then illnesses and evils will be eliminated” (Shu 2017, p. 155). Similar to the twelve practicing processes of the Xujing principle, it also formulates twelve self-cultivating methods of spirit: keeping natural mind peace (自然清靜), conforming to naturalness (順應自然), maintaining the righteousness of mind and thoughts (正心正念), keeping moderate and restrained (適度有節), staying calm and sedate (淡定從容), living mindfully in the present (活在當下), being content and happy with current possession (知足常樂), pursuing noble taste with simplicity and thrifty (簡素致遠), returning to humility and tranquility (清空歸零), holding great wisdom with great humility (大智若愚), knowing the nature law and accepting personal fate (知天樂命), and enjoying peacefulness and happiness (安享清歡) (Xu and Lei 2018).

In the cultivation of spirit, self-cultivation pays more attention to accumulating virtues and refining moralities based on the normative doctrine of the Xujing principle. Shichuang Zhan points out that Taoism links human life encounters with ethics and morality (Zhan 2003, p. 60) and has the function of teaching benevolence and removing evils with the obvious concepts of immortality and life ethics (Zhan 2003, p. 62). Taoist female immortals, equal to male immortals, are not only good at body and mind cultivation but also focus more on accumulating virtues and helping the world. All the revered Taoist female immortals, like the revered Taoist male immortals, show ethical wisdom with great charity and compassion. Doumu Yuanjun (斗母元君) is described as a great saint, with charity and compassion; if living beings in trouble called her name, she would always come to save them from their suffering by following their voices (X. Zhang 2001, p. 535). Similarly, Bixia Yuanjun (碧霞元君) was devoted to taking good care of all the good and evil things on Earth, blessing farmland, business, travel, marriage, and childbirth, and healing illness (X. Zhang 2001, p. 545). Mazu (媽祖) helped people out of disasters at sea with her compassion and good water skills (X. Zhang 2001, pp. 546–47). Other female immortals such as Cihang Zhenran (慈航真人), Shuntian Shengmu (順天元君), Ziwei Furen (紫薇夫人), Magu Yuanjun (麻姑元君), etc., also adopted moral transcendence as their life pursuit to attain immortality. Self-cultivation advocates that we learn from them to accumulate virtues and refine mortality. It stresses loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, and righteousness (忠孝仁義). It requires people to abide by virtuous principles and practices like giving and dispersing wealth, generating benevolence and love, accumulating merits and good deeds, and being selfless and inclusive. It also comes up with practical commandments such as not to steal, not to take ill-gotten gains, not to engage in illicit sexual intercourse, not to slander others with delusive words, not to speak with fake tongues, and not to conspire other evils. These ethical principles and practices, which focus on the self-cultivation of inner goodness, is of great significance for the proper handling of the modern human–self relationship, making a great contribution to the construction of contemporary life ethics.

In the cultivation of form and spirit, self-cultivation stresses “the unity of them without separation” (載營魄抱一) (Laozi 2011, p. 25)”. Form and spirit, like inner nature and destiny, are generally seen as closely connected, without essential or substantive difference between them. Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn conclude that “The two simply indicate different aspects of the same basic phenomenon; they should be intimately linked and merged into one integrated unity. As perception becomes clearer the unfolding of the adept’s spiritual side brings with it physical transformations as well as a new understanding of body and self. Similarly, all physical changes effected by the practice bring about a new evolution of the inner psychological state.” (Despeux and Kohn 2003, p. 214). In other words, the two are an inevitable integrity. The more the form is sublimated, the more spirit becomes light, radiant, and open, until it dissolves into eternal cosmic life. Such ethical practices of form and spirit help people to enhance the awareness of the integrity of body and mind so as to get rid of the fear of death, the uneasiness of life, and the detachment from self. Meanwhile, it is also noteworthy that the ethical practices of the dual cultivation of form and spirit are not exclusive for women, and the examples of female immortals’ dual cultivation do not mean that only female immortals are capable of achieving immortality through the dual cultivation. In fact, self-cultivation is suitable for everyone. Feminine virtuous deeds can be seen in male immortals and can serve as examples for both female and male Taoists.

To sum up, the classical principles of Taoist female worship have been developed into contemporary practical concepts of thingness re-enchantment, harmony world, and self-cultivation from feminist perspectives. Like the three main classical principles, the three main contemporary practices also imply holistic thinking; they are an integrity; they complement each other and work together to regulate ethical human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships and to establish efficient environmental ethics, social ethics, and life ethics to cope with ecological crisis, social crisis, and personal crisis. In other words, with the contemporary practices, Taoist female worship is instructive for contemporary people to make the right ethical choices in order to achieve a positive ethical outcome in terms of the solution to contemporary crises; the construction and maintenance of a community of destiny among nature, society, and human beings; and the future survival and shared prosperity of all beings.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, interpreting from the perspective of feminism, Taoist female worship, as a Taoist religious tradition formed by the inheritance and development of goddess worship and female immortal worship, provides abundant Chinese wisdom for the whole world in terms of how to overcome contemporary crises by regulating ethical relationships. With the three main principles of Qiwu, Zhuyin, and Xujing, Taoist female worship established a set of worldviews concerning human–nature, human–human, and human–self relationships, which are of great help to the ethics construction of both ancient and modern times. With the main contemporary practices of thingness re-enchantment, harmony world, and self-cultivation, which are inherited and developed from the classical principles, Taoist female worship helps contemporary people to rethink ethical problems and resolve worldwide crises. Both the classical principles and contemporary practices not only reflect the ever-lasting glamour of Taoist female worship as a religious tradition which promotes Taoist doctrines but also demonstrate the timeless significance of Taoist female worship as a cultural symbolism which advocates environmental, social, and personal harmony through ethical practices.

The most praiseworthy point is that Taoist female worship jumps out of the superficial interpretation of concepts. As for the word “Taoist”, it contains both “T (Tao—Nature)” and “-ist (Human related)”. When talking about the word “Female”, it means “F (female)” plus “M (male)” instead of single “F (female)”. About “Worship”, it defines the “W (water world)” by emphasizing the “Ship (water transportation)”. These profound interpretations are what Taoist female worship aims to convey. It first illuminates the Natural Tao: “Human models on Earth; Earth models on Heaven, Heaven models on Tao; Tao models on Nature” (人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。) (Laozi 2011, p. 66). The human should follow the example of nature, conforming to natural law to maintain the human–nature harmony. Second, it implies the Tao of Yinyang cosmology: “Tao begets one, one begets two, two begets three, and three begets all things. Everything contains Yin and Yang, and they interact to form a harmonious whole” (道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物。萬物負陰而抱陽，沖氣以爲和。) (Laozi 2011, p. 120); therefore, a harmonious human–human relationship is essential to establishing a harmonious society. Third, Taoist female worship signifies the Tao of Being like Water: “human should be like water to cultivate the best virtues—beneficial for all things without competition, locate in humble places, have a benevolent heart, be kind to others, speak trustworthy, good at leadership, do professional things, and move timely. No-competition makes no wrongdoings.” (水善利萬物而不爭，處衆人之所惡，故幾于道。居善地，心善淵，與善仁，言善信，正善治，事善能，動善時。夫唯不爭，故無尤。) (Laozi 2011, p. 22). In this way, an individual can live peacefully with others and by themselves. In this sense, Taoist female worship itself has been a form of Tao to some extent, which provides more than virtuous Taoist models for Chinese people; it also offers sublime Taoist wisdom for the whole world.

Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn commended that “Daoism goes beyond mainstream in that many of its strands propose a feminine ideal as cosmic yin and venerate important goddesses and immortals. These serve as models to living women. Daoism, moreover, offers a social alternative for women in that it opens paths to pursue their own goals as independent agents, be it the practice of self- cultivation, service as mediums, nuns, or priests, or attainment of immortality.” (Despeux and Kohn 2003, p. 5). While paying tribute to their penetrating commends, this article believes Taoism to transcend the mainstream not only in its proposition of the feminine ideal as cosmic Yin based on goddess and immortal veneration but also in the establishment, development, and spread of Taoist female worship as a worshipful Tao itself, which highlights the universally symbolized feminine virtues beneficial for all. So to speak, Taoist female worship brings more than an alternative for both men and women to pursue life fulfillment; it also opens the mind’s eye for all beings to see and embrace the capitalized cosmic Life as it is.