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19 pages, 383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Anthropocene, Self-Cultivation, and Courage: The Jesuit François Noël as a Witness of Inter-Religious Dialogue between Aristotelian and Confucian Ethics

by Yves Vendé

Religions 2024, 15(10), 1242; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101242 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 890

Abstract

This article explores the specific role of courage in the context of the Anthropocene’s moment; it first examines Aristotle’s conception of virtues, focusing on courage, before comparing it to Confucian thought and analyzing the historical dialogue between Western and Chinese traditions on [...] Read more.

This article explores the specific role of courage in the context of the Anthropocene’s moment; it first examines Aristotle’s conception of virtues, focusing on courage, before comparing it to Confucian thought and analyzing the historical dialogue between Western and Chinese traditions on ethics through the works of François Noël (1651–1729). Aristotle views moral cultivation as a social process wherein habits shape inner dispositions; in his view, courage is linked to other virtues, such as temperance and justice. For Aristotle, courage implies the appropriate balance between extremes and must be directed toward a worthy end, such as promoting positive change within a community. This Aristotelian perspective was later incorporated into a biblical framework by Aquinas and Suarez, emphasizing dichotomies between body and soul, as well as between humans and other living beings. These dichotomies must be challenged in the face of the Anthropocene’s emergencies. The second part of this contribution proceeds to a detour examining Confucian ethics, which rests on a different anthropology, emphasizing continuities rather than discontinuities. Like Aristotelian thought, Confucian thought also underscores moral education within a community; it prioritizes humanity, embodied through empathy and loyalty. In the Analects, courage is balanced by a sense of rituals and righteousness. Mencius further distinguishes several types of courage, stressing self-cultivation and the ruler’s responsibility to make empathetic, appropriate decisions for the community’s sake. From this perspective, courage is understood as the continuous perseverance in self-cultivation, coupled with a firm intention oriented toward the good of the community. Zhu Xi’s comments on Zilu’s courage in the Analects extend this Confucian tradition. Finally, this article highlights how a dialogue between Aristotelian and Confucian ethics began four centuries ago, particularly through Noël’s Philosophia Sinica, which combined these traditions. This inter-religious approach to ethics, enriched by figures such as Aquinas, Suarez, Zhu Xi, and neo-Confucian thinkers, requires re-evaluation because the understanding of personal ethics and nature has evolved. The modern naturalistic approach, with its emphasis on dichotomies, has contributed to a mechanistic view of nature, fostering its exploitation, and a devaluation of the body. This contrast highlights the urgent need for renewed dialogue between Western and Chinese ethical traditions to address contemporary challenges, with François Noël serving as a historical witness of these exchanges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

13 pages, 337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Confucianism as the Foundation for a “Secular State”: François Bernier’s Interpretation of the Confucian Classics

by Niecai Wang

Religions 2024, 15(10), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101198 - 1 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1076

Abstract

From the late 17th to the early 18th century, Europe witnessed various intellectual debates, and it undeniably received help from places outside Europe such as China. When Chinese history, culture and thought, especially the Confucian classics translated into Latin, were introduced to Europe, [...] Read more.

From the late 17th to the early 18th century, Europe witnessed various intellectual debates, and it undeniably received help from places outside Europe such as China. When Chinese history, culture and thought, especially the Confucian classics translated into Latin, were introduced to Europe, they provided resources for comparison and reference for Europe’s ideological crisis. Confucius ou la Science des Princes, the Confucian classic translated by François Bernier, is a typical example. From the perspective of the cross-cultural history of ideas, after carefully analyzing the terminology used in Bernier’s translation and his understanding of Confucius’s thought, this paper will show that Bernier accepted, through the Jesuit translation, the non-religious dimension of politics and ethics in Confucianism, but unlike the Jesuits, he did not see Confucianism as needing Christianity; on the contrary, he believed that politics and ethics could be based on a purely secular philosophy. Based on his secular understanding of Confucius’s thought, Bernier reconstructed Confucius’s texts as a manual to teach European princes, regarding the prince’s virtue, reason and benevolence as the foundation of a country’s good government. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

13 pages, 387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dulia or Latria: Revisiting the Catholic Missionaries’ View on Guishen in Late Ming and Early Qing

by He Sun

Religions 2024, 15(8), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080937 - 1 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 992

Abstract

Angels and guishen 鬼神, as entities distinct from humans, hold great importance in Chinese and Judaeo-Christian cultures, respectively. Since they share similar roles in providing moral guidance, Jesuit missionaries attempted to identify angels with the guishen to facilitate the introduction of the Catholic [...] Read more.

Angels and guishen 鬼神, as entities distinct from humans, hold great importance in Chinese and Judaeo-Christian cultures, respectively. Since they share similar roles in providing moral guidance, Jesuit missionaries attempted to identify angels with the guishen to facilitate the introduction of the Catholic cult of angels to China. However, as the Chinese reverence for guishen differed somewhat from the Catholic cult of angels, this identification posed significant doctrinal questions. This article uses the issue of reverence for guishen to review the missionaries’ different understandings and interpretations of Chinese guishen. By distinguishing three different attitudes and positions towards Chinese guishen, it shows that both sides, adhering to their respective cultural centers, are unable to resolve the debates on these spirits, whether interpreting the West through Chinese perspectives, as “Sinicizing Christianity” 以儒化耶, or interpreting China through Western perspectives, as “Christianizing Confucianism” 以耶化儒. Therefore, this article argues that although the controversies over the nature and reverence of guishen between China and the West are unavoidable, there is still common ground in their understanding of sacred existence. As demonstrated by the missionaries’ recognition, interpretation, and understanding of Chinese guishen at different times, it reveals the inherent tension between Chinese and Western cultures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Western Traditions and Eastern Practices: Historical Examples and Political Interpretation in Vagnone’s Western Learning of Governance

by Lingmei Xue

Religions 2024, 15(8), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080936 - 1 Aug 2024

Viewed by 810

Abstract

This paper explores how the Jesuit missionary Alfonso Vagnone selected, interpreted, and presented historical examples in The Western Learning of Governance (Zhiping xixue 治平西学) to support their political theories and viewpoints. It analyzes how this cross-cultural knowledge exchange aimed at facilitating the [...] Read more.

This paper explores how the Jesuit missionary Alfonso Vagnone selected, interpreted, and presented historical examples in The Western Learning of Governance (Zhiping xixue 治平西学) to support their political theories and viewpoints. It analyzes how this cross-cultural knowledge exchange aimed at facilitating the interaction and integration of Chinese and Western political thought. When choosing historical examples, Vagnone reduced the religious elements and highlighted the secular dimension and the Western political principles which align with the political practices of the Ming dynasty. This process demonstrates cultural adaptation and adjustment. By comparing Western and Eastern interpretations of the same historical examples, this paper illustrates how missionaries used these examples to bridge Western and Eastern political thought, promoting their interaction and integration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

13 pages, 391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is Confucius a Philosopher or a Saint? Michele Ruggieri’s Views from His Translations of the Four Books

by Huiyu Wang

Religions 2024, 15(7), 838; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070838 - 11 Jul 2024

Viewed by 779

Abstract

Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607) was the first Westerner officially approved to reside in China. He promoted Chinese and Western cultural exchange, and he was especially noted for facilitating dialogue between Confucianism and Catholicism. His writings had an important impact in both China and Europe. [...] Read more.

Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607) was the first Westerner officially approved to reside in China. He promoted Chinese and Western cultural exchange, and he was especially noted for facilitating dialogue between Confucianism and Catholicism. His writings had an important impact in both China and Europe. During his sojourn preaching in China, Ruggieri not only wrote the Tianzhu shilu—the first catechism written in Chinese—but he was also the first Westerner to translate the Four Books into Western language and introduce them to Europe. Based on Ruggieri’s two translations of the Four Books—one translation into Spanish, and one into Latin—this article analyzes Ruggieri’s views of Confucius. In his translations, Ruggieri identified Confucius as a philosopher and a shengren, or saint, and he highlighted the status of Confucius in the Four Books. After analyzing Ruggieri’s treatments of Confucian concepts, this article discusses how Ruggieri’s translations imply that Confucianism had both rational and religious dimensions. After Ruggieri, other Jesuits who came to China gradually turned to emphasizing the rational aspects of Confucianism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moral Education and Heaven–Human Relationship in Jesuit Translations of Chinese Poetry (17th–18th Centuries)

by Xiaoshu Li and Yuan Tan

Religions 2024, 15(7), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070798 - 29 Jun 2024

Viewed by 872

Abstract

The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of extensive cultural interaction between China and the West, and also the beginning of Chinese poetry translation in the West. Jesuit missionaries were pioneers in introducing Chinese poetry to Europe. Influenced by the Confucian poetic [...] Read more.

The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of extensive cultural interaction between China and the West, and also the beginning of Chinese poetry translation in the West. Jesuit missionaries were pioneers in introducing Chinese poetry to Europe. Influenced by the Confucian poetic thought of Siwuxie 思無邪 (no depraved thoughts) and Ricci’s accommodation strategy, the Jesuits translated poems from the Shangshu 尚書, the Shijing 詩經, and the Emperor Qianlong’s Imperial Odes on Shengjing 禦制盛京賦, as well as works by Fan Zhongyan 范仲淹, Du Fu 杜甫, Shao Yong 邵雍, and even the poems in the exhortations of the Ming and Qing dynasties into European languages. These poems predominantly dealt with themes of moral education, the image of virtuous monarchs, and the Chinese concept of the Heaven–human relationship. Through intentional omissions and rewriting, the Jesuits incorporated their religious and political views into the Chinese poetry. Their translated works not only enriched European knowledge of Chinese culture but also demonstrated the complexity of Chinese–Western cultural exchange. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

19 pages, 479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Qiu Jun on Jesuit Missionaries and Chinese Christian Texts in Ming–Qing China

by Dadui Yao

Religions 2024, 15(7), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070757 - 21 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1273

Abstract

This study explores the previously overlooked influence of Qiu Jun, a renowned mid-Ming dynasty scholar, on Jesuit missionaries and Chinese Catholic believers. Although Qiu’s impact on Confucian scholars of the mid-to-late Ming period is well established, his role in shaping formalized Chinese ritual [...] Read more.

This study explores the previously overlooked influence of Qiu Jun, a renowned mid-Ming dynasty scholar, on Jesuit missionaries and Chinese Catholic believers. Although Qiu’s impact on Confucian scholars of the mid-to-late Ming period is well established, his role in shaping formalized Chinese ritual systems and Chinese Catholicism has received little attention. A closer examination of Jesuit missionaries’ translation of Confucian classics and Chinese Catholic texts from the late Ming and early Qing periods reveals that Qiu’s works were frequently cited, particularly in relation to the abolition of divine titles, the worship of Confucius, and the establishment of the City-god system. Qiu’s responses to these issues, informed by Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang’s efforts to centralize power and establish authority in both secular and religious spheres, served as key references for mid-Ming reforms. Moreover, Jesuit fathers and Chinese Catholic adherents drew on Qiu’s perspectives in their writings to address various issues during the Chinese Rites Controversy. This research uncovers the profound impact of Qiu Jun’s ideas on the cultural exchange between China and the West in the 17th–18th centuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Propaganda Fide and the Role of Apostolic Nuncios during the Early Modern Period: A Case Study of China

by Rui Zhang

Religions 2024, 15(6), 713; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060713 - 9 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1102

Abstract

In 1622, a counter-reformist concept of the mission led to the foundation of Propaganda Fide, a congregation to which the Supreme Pontiffs entrusted various tasks at the global level, including the reassertion of the pope’s authority over missionary activities, which had previously been [...] Read more.

In 1622, a counter-reformist concept of the mission led to the foundation of Propaganda Fide, a congregation to which the Supreme Pontiffs entrusted various tasks at the global level, including the reassertion of the pope’s authority over missionary activities, which had previously been dominated by European secular powers using the patronage system. In carrying out its mandate, the new Congregation also charged apostolic nuncios, almost entirely Italian, with collecting information from and establishing direct contacts with the states of Catholic Christianity and of missionary territories beyond. These nuncios not only performed activities of a religious nature but also served as diplomats and representatives of the pope, endowed with particular powers and faculties. This article introduces the role of apostolic nuncios and analyzes the results of the first of these sent by the Propaganda Fide to China, Charles Thomas Maillard de Tournon. It will show that, as the first papal legate to China, he was not entirely successful in his objectives, but his mission can be seen as a turning point in the history of relations between the Holy See and China and as an important episode which helps us to understand not only early Sino–papal relations but also the development of the new global vision of the Catholic Church as it was formulated by the Propaganda Fide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The First Latin Translation of Li 礼 from the Analects of Confucius: Roman Virtues or Religious Acts?

by Michele Ferrero

Religions 2024, 15(4), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15040505 - 19 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1354

Abstract

This article centers around the early translation of the term Li 礼 in the Analects of Confucius (论语). This Latin translation shows that the interpretation of the Confucian term Li 礼 mostly did not include any religious meaning. This article also centers on [...] Read more.

This article centers around the early translation of the term Li 礼 in the Analects of Confucius (论语). This Latin translation shows that the interpretation of the Confucian term Li 礼 mostly did not include any religious meaning. This article also centers on the personal formation of the Jesuits of that time. Taking Michele Ruggieri as reference, this article details how studies based on the Latin Classics (especially Cicero) provided them with a reference to interpret this term as unrelated to religious worship. When the Jesuits arrived in China, at the end of the Ming dynasty, strong emphasis was given to the proper etiquette towards state officials. This in turn derived from the situation in the imperial court. In this historical environment, the Confucian rites (Li 礼) were interpreted as “good manners”. This article also presents briefly the question of whether for Christians, Li 礼 as a proper social behavior inspired by a particular cultural tradition has any connection with or can be a problem for the rituals of the Christian tradition instituted by Jesus as vehicles of divine grace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

27 pages, 543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building Communities through Rituals: Glimpses into the Life of Chinese Christian Communities in the 17th Century

by Valentina Lin Yang Yang

Religions 2024, 15(4), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15040444 - 31 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1484

Abstract

As central agents in the cultural dialogue between China and Europe in the 17th century, Christian Chinese communities represent a rich and fascinating source, offering a unique intercultural perspective on the intellectual, cultural, and religious world of late Ming and early Qing China. [...] Read more.

As central agents in the cultural dialogue between China and Europe in the 17th century, Christian Chinese communities represent a rich and fascinating source, offering a unique intercultural perspective on the intellectual, cultural, and religious world of late Ming and early Qing China. What did these communities look like? How did they come into being and maintain their significance as a community? By utilising stories depicting scenes of Christian ritual practices in local Chinese contexts between the 1620s and 1640s, collected by a late Ming Christian convert from Fujian, this article delves into the life of Chinese Christian communities, specifically focusing on the dimension of ritual practice. It shows how rituals played a key role in the formation of these communities, not only in keeping them alive, but also in continually redefining their significance for their members. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theologizing the Aristotelian Soul in Early Modern China: The Influence of Dr Navarrus’ Enchiridion (1573) over Lingyan lishao (1624) by Francesco Sambiasi and Xu Guangqi

by Daniel Canaris

Religions 2024, 15(4), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15040394 - 25 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1174

Abstract

Lingyan lishao 靈言蠡勺 [LYLS] (Humble Attempt to Discuss the Soul, 1624) by the Calabrian Jesuit Francesco Sambiasi (1582–1649) and the Chinese mandarin Xu Guangqi 徐光啓 (1562–1633) was the first Chinese-language treatise on the scholastic Aristotelian soul and a pioneering work in [...] Read more.

Lingyan lishao 靈言蠡勺 [LYLS] (Humble Attempt to Discuss the Soul, 1624) by the Calabrian Jesuit Francesco Sambiasi (1582–1649) and the Chinese mandarin Xu Guangqi 徐光啓 (1562–1633) was the first Chinese-language treatise on the scholastic Aristotelian soul and a pioneering work in Sino–Western intellectual exchanges. Until now, the dominant assumption has been that the first volume (juan) of this work is simply an adaptation of the Coimbra commentaries on De Anima [DA] and Parva Naturalia [PN]. This article demonstrates, however, that while most of the first juan is based on these Coimbra commentaries, its treatise on the substance of the soul was likely derived from another source, namely the Enchiridion, a 16th century confessional manual by the Spanish Augustinian Martín de Azpilcueta (1492–1586), or Doctor Navarrus. Through a close textual comparison, this article shows how LYLS adopts the same structure, content, and citations of the Enchiridion to construct an accessible and concise theological definition of the soul that was better suited for the Chinese missionary context than the dense philosophic definitions of the Coimbra commentaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

16 pages, 322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Missionary Writings during the Canton Exile (1666–1671): Crisis in the Manchu-Christian Relationship

by Thierry Meynard

Religions 2024, 15(3), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030295 - 27 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1165

Abstract

During their Canton exile (1666–1671), European missionaries wrote an impressive number of reports and letters which have not been systematically studied until now. After presenting a detailed analysis of the institutional background of the 25 missionaries who arrived in Canton, we analyze the [...] Read more.

During their Canton exile (1666–1671), European missionaries wrote an impressive number of reports and letters which have not been systematically studied until now. After presenting a detailed analysis of the institutional background of the 25 missionaries who arrived in Canton, we analyze the first internal reports about the Calendar Case. Then, we discuss three important Jesuit works by Gabiani, Grelon and Rougemont, who attributed the crisis to the opposition of the Manchus to Christianity. The distrust of the Canton Jesuits towards the Manchus throws a new light into the approach of Christianity towards politics and religion in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

23 pages, 458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Between Spanish Franciscans and Chinese Literati in Late Ming and Early Qing: Modes of Interactions and Cultural Exchanges

by Junyang Ye

Religions 2024, 15(3), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030261 - 21 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1381

Abstract

The Franciscan Order was one of the most important missionary orders in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. While rooted in the local communities, they also engaged in various forms of interactions with Chinese literati. This article will begin by briefly discussing [...] Read more.

The Franciscan Order was one of the most important missionary orders in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. While rooted in the local communities, they also engaged in various forms of interactions with Chinese literati. This article will begin by briefly discussing the issue of the Franciscans changing from religious habit into Chinese dress as well as their evolving attitude towards Confucianism and Chinese rituals, aiming to illustrate the process of shaping their “Western Confucian” image and their adaptation to Chinese culture. Subsequently, the focus of this paper will be shifted to exploring the modes of interactions between the Spanish Franciscans and the Chinese literati. The author argues that the interactions between the two sides were primarily power-based. These power-based interactions entailed establishing connections with officials and leveraging their influence to safeguard missionary activities. It can be further categorized into three types. The first type involved socializing with officials, while the second type included interaction with Jesuit officials in court, and the third type was direct involvement in official positions. In their engagement with literati, the Franciscans demonstrated a thorough understanding of and adaptation to Chinese societal and cultural norms, thereby facilitating the development of their mission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Propagating the Rosary in the Early Qing—A Case Study of del Rosario’s Comprehensive Manuscript

by Hongfan Yang

Religions 2024, 15(2), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15020230 - 16 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1548

Abstract

Studies on the Rosary in the late Ming and early Qing usually focus on works written by Jesuits and mostly stem from an artistic aspect. This article, however, shifts the focus to The True Peace of Humankind, a manuscript written by the [...] Read more.

Studies on the Rosary in the late Ming and early Qing usually focus on works written by Jesuits and mostly stem from an artistic aspect. This article, however, shifts the focus to The True Peace of Humankind, a manuscript written by the Dominican missionary Arcadio del Rosario in the seventeenth century, the first comprehensive book on the Rosary in Chinese. It first summarizes the early-stage propagation of the Rosary in China by the Jesuits and then examines the structure and content of The True Peace of Humankind. It is noteworthy that the manuscript repeatedly uses an analogy with flowers to highlight Mary’s intercession. Dating back to the Catholic tradition in Europe, the propagation of the Rosary through analogy with flowers resembles the propagation of reciting Buddhist prayers in Chinese society. This article applies contextual studies to explore two main questions: how is del Rosario’s manuscript different from the previous texts on the Rosary written by the Jesuits? What is the significance of the manuscript in the context of the Chinese Rites Controversy? Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

15 pages, 430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One Hundred Years of Echoes: The Influence of the Jesuit Aleni on the Spiritual Life of the Manchu Prince Depei

by Dawei Pan

Religions 2024, 15(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15010138 - 22 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1427

Abstract

This paper reveals the interweaving of three traditions—Christian, Manchu, and Han Chinese—in the work of an unduly neglected figure in early modern China, Aisin-Gioro Depei 愛新覺羅·德沛 (1688–1752), who was a Manchu prince, neo-Confucian philosopher, and likely, a hidden Christian. The analysis demonstrates that [...] Read more.

This paper reveals the interweaving of three traditions—Christian, Manchu, and Han Chinese—in the work of an unduly neglected figure in early modern China, Aisin-Gioro Depei 愛新覺羅·德沛 (1688–1752), who was a Manchu prince, neo-Confucian philosopher, and likely, a hidden Christian. The analysis demonstrates that Depei developed a particular syncretic philosophy based on the rational theology that he learned from the works of a significant Jesuit missionary, Giulio Aleni (1582–1649, 艾儒略), notably Aleni’s Xingxue cushu 性學觕述 (A Brief Introduction to the Study of Human Nature). Using resources from Christian and Confucian traditions, Depei puts forward an approach, which marks the continuation of the cross-cultural interpretation movement launched by the missionaries since the late Ming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

11 pages, 1633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing Encounters between Chinese and Western Art: The Contribution of Two Jesuits in China in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

by Lisi Feng

Religions 2024, 15(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15010129 - 19 Jan 2024

Viewed by 3054

Abstract

This article explores the introduction and influence of Western art in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, focusing on the role of the Jesuits—especially Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), one of the founders of Catholic missionary work in China—and the most famous and influential [...] Read more.

This article explores the introduction and influence of Western art in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, focusing on the role of the Jesuits—especially Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), one of the founders of Catholic missionary work in China—and the most famous and influential Western figure in China’s art history, Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766). The Jesuits recognized art’s potential in their missionary efforts. The article examines the varied responses of Chinese literati to Western art theories in the 17th and 18th centuries, and how Jesuit-introduced artistic concepts were assimilated within different Chinese contexts. It also investigates how Western art merged into Chinese culture, noting the linguistic integration of concepts like chiaroscuro. In Ricci’s time, Western art intrigued the Chinese, but deep acceptance and conceptual transformation were limited. The assimilation of Western techniques was not as widespread as expected. In the 18th century, due to restrictions on Christianity, the religious role of painting diminished. Castiglione’s hybrid style, though influential in the Qing court, faced challenges in gaining cultural acceptance from the Han literati, leading to more criticism than in Ricci’s era. Despite these challenges and varying receptions, the contributions of Ricci and Castiglione to the Sino–Western art exchange are significant, reflecting the complex interplay of art, religion, and cultural dynamics across these periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

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15 pages, 388 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Orthodoxy in China and the West: The Jesuit Interpretation of Analects 2.16

by Feizhi Qi

Religions 2024, 15(1), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15010128 - 19 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1604

Abstract

The Confucius Sinarum Philosophus (1687) resulted from Jesuit research into Chinese classical texts. Upon its publication, the work conformed to the Jesuits’ accommodationist policy, facing challenges over its orthodoxy from both China and the West. The Latin translation and commentary on Analects 2.16 [...] Read more.

The Confucius Sinarum Philosophus (1687) resulted from Jesuit research into Chinese classical texts. Upon its publication, the work conformed to the Jesuits’ accommodationist policy, facing challenges over its orthodoxy from both China and the West. The Latin translation and commentary on Analects 2.16 mirror these challenges and the Jesuit rebuttal. Compared to earlier translations, this version adheres more closely to traditional Chinese exegesis and participates actively in historical debates over orthodoxy. The annotations also delineate the heterodox teachings of the Yang (楊), Mo (墨), Daoist, and Buddhist schools, juxtaposing them with Confucianism, which they portray as a natural law to be perfected. The inclusion of these four heterodoxies introduces a novel aspect to Christian heresiology, while the portrayal of Confucianism assimilates it into the Christian orthodox framework. This article contends that the translation and commentary exemplify the Jesuits’ efforts to establish orthodoxy within both Chinese and Western contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

16 pages, 933 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Imagination of Alchemy: A Chinese Response to Catholicism in Late Ming and Early Qing

by Xiliang Wang

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1521; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121521 - 8 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1765

Abstract

As a common cultural phenomenon in China and the West, alchemy not only embodies the scientific spirit of people before modern times, but also contains certain religious beliefs, and even creates unrealistic secular imaginations. When Catholicism entered China during the Ming and Qing [...] Read more.

As a common cultural phenomenon in China and the West, alchemy not only embodies the scientific spirit of people before modern times, but also contains certain religious beliefs, and even creates unrealistic secular imaginations. When Catholicism entered China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Chinese also projected this imagination of alchemy onto the missionaries. Behind this imagination actually lays the strong interest of Chinese people in the financial resources of the missionaries. On the one hand, there is the historical influence of traditional Chinese alchemy, and on the other hand, there is the curiosity caused by the lifestyle of missionaries in China. The imagination of alchemy not only reflects a historical aspect of the encounter between China and the West during the Ming and Qing dynasties, but also reflects a complex social psychology of mixed curiosity, panic, suspicion, and vigilance in pre-modern China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

17 pages, 918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Interaction and Clash of Ideas between Matteo Ricci and the Taizhou School

by Sijie Xie

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1512; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121512 - 7 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1852

Abstract

This article explores the interactions between the Taizhou school and Jesuit missionaries during the late Ming dynasty. It reveals the intellectual exchanges between these influential groups in fields such as philosophy and religion and their significance in spreading Western knowledge to the East. [...] Read more.

This article explores the interactions between the Taizhou school and Jesuit missionaries during the late Ming dynasty. It reveals the intellectual exchanges between these influential groups in fields such as philosophy and religion and their significance in spreading Western knowledge to the East. The article begins by introducing the complete process of exchanges between Taizhou school representatives like Jiao Hong, Li Zhi, Zhu Shilu, Tang Xianzu, Xu Guangqi, and Jesuit missionaries including Matteo Ricci. It delves into how these interactions influenced the development of their respective thoughts and academic theories. The exchange between the two groups was not a perfect fusion and was filled with contradictions, conflicts, and struggles, particularly on issues such as human nature and cosmology. By studying this process of exchange, we can understand how the intellectual elite of late Ming China accepted and reflected upon Western thought. It also reveals how Western intellectuals used this exchange to comprehend and appreciate Chinese philosophy and culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

14 pages, 910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Ricci’s Missionary Strategy: The Disputes between Buglio and Schall

by Wenting Hu

Religions 2023, 14(9), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091122 - 31 Aug 2023

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Abstract

During the late Ming Dynasty period, the Jesuits carried out a cultural accommodation strategy in China, commonly known as Ricci’s Strategy, due to the significant role played by Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) during this process. This strategy encompassed three elements: evangelizing through science and [...] Read more.

During the late Ming Dynasty period, the Jesuits carried out a cultural accommodation strategy in China, commonly known as Ricci’s Strategy, due to the significant role played by Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) during this process. This strategy encompassed three elements: evangelizing through science and technology, establishing connections with the upper class, and compiling books to spread evangelism, all of which helped Catholicism to be promoted in China and be accepted by the Chinese people collectively. But the strategy also drew a lot of opposition within and outside of the Society of Jesus, some of which even led to the Rites Controversy. The extant literature primarily focuses on the conflicts that arose between the Society of Jesus and other religious orders, as well as the divergent viewpoints within the Society itself, like Niccolò Longobardo (1559–1654)’s well-documented anti-Riccian position. However, this approach largely ignored the disputes that arose within the Jesuit community in Beijing during the 17th century, mainly involving Ludovico Buglio (1606–1682) and Adam Schall (1592–1666) as two key figures on opposing sides. These disputes primarily centered around three points: the inclusion of superstitious elements in the calendar, the identities of the Jesuits in Early Qing, and the approach to inculturating theology. Although these historical events offered new perspectives and materials for the study of Ricci’s Strategy, they have received limited scholarly attention. This paper focuses on the disputes between Buglio and Schall, analyzing how Matteo Ricci’s Strategy was investigated during that time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Catholic Encounter with Chinese Thought, Society and Politics in the Ming–Qing Dynasties)

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