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Recycling
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Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling
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Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling

A special issue of Recycling (ISSN 2313-4321).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2025 | Viewed by 12620

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sascha Nowak

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
MEET Battery Research Center, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 46, 48149 Münster, Germany
Interests: lithium-ion batteries; ageing; analytics; electrolyte; recycling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The progressive expansion of electromobility will lead to an increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in the future and thus inevitably to a drastically increased demand for raw materials for battery materials. The recycling and reuse of the individual components therefore serves as an important link in achieving a circular economy, whereby the dependence on geographically unevenly distributed elements and the associated costs can be reduced and the sustainability within the value chain improved.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and upcoming cell chemistries like sodium-ion or lithium–sulfur batteries are and will be an integral part of our modern way of life, particularly in portable electronic devices and the emerging field of electric mobility. Ongoing research in the field, with the overarching aim of achieving higher energy densities and enabling lower material costs, has led to the continuous development of new cell chemistries specifically adapted to different requirements. The resulting high complexity of battery systems in combination with varying battery lifetimes leads to a heterogeneous flow of used end-of-life cells. In view of this, the establishment of universal, flexible, and robust recycling processes remains a major challenge, which is why it is crucial to thoroughly analyze and optimize the current state of the art and adapt it to future types and cell chemistries.

Dr. Sascha Nowak
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Recycling is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • recycling
  • lithium-ion batteries
  • next-generation batteries
  • hydrometallurgy
  • direct recycling
  • pyrometallurgy
  • extraction
  • resynthesis

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 3845 KiB  
Article
Graphite Separation from Lithium-Ion Battery Black Mass Using Froth Flotation and Quality Evaluation for Reuse as a Secondary Raw Material Including Non-Battery Applications
by Johannes Rieger, Stephan Stuhr, Bettina Rutrecht, Stefan Morgenbesser, Thomas Nigl, Astrid Arnberger, Hartwig Kunanz and Stefanie Lesiak
Recycling 2025, 10(2), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10020075 - 14 Apr 2025
Viewed by 300
Abstract
This study investigates graphite separation from Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) black mass (which is a mixture of anode and cathode materials) via froth flotation coupled with an open-loop recycling approach for the graphite (froth) product. Black mass samples originating from different LIB types were [...] Read more.
This study investigates graphite separation from Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) black mass (which is a mixture of anode and cathode materials) via froth flotation coupled with an open-loop recycling approach for the graphite (froth) product. Black mass samples originating from different LIB types were used to produce a carbon-poor and a carbon-enriched fractions. The optimization of the flotation parameters was carried out depending on the black mass chemistry, i.e., the number of flotation stages and the dosing of flotation agents. The carbon-enriched product (with a carbon content of 92 wt.%, corresponding to a recovery of 89%) was subsequently used as a secondary carbon source for refractory material (magnesia carbon brick). Analyses of brick chemistry, as well as thermo-mechanic properties in terms of density, porosity, cold crushing strength (CCS), hot modulus of rupture (HMOR—the maximum bending stress that can be applied to a material before it breaks), and thermal conductivity showed no negative influence on brick quality. It could be demonstrated that flotation graphite can principally be used as a secondary source for non-battery applications. This is a highly valuable example that contributes to a more complete closure of a battery’s life cycle in terms of circular economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling)
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17 pages, 3834 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Removal of PVDF Using ToF-SIMS: Comparing Dihydrolevoglucosenone and Pyrolysis as Pretreatments for Cathode Materials of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Marc Simon Henderson, Aliza Marie Salces, William D. A. Rickard, Denis Fougerouse, Álvaro José Rodríguez Medina, Elsayed A. Oraby, Chau Chun Beh, Martin Rudolph, Anna Vanderbruggen and Jacques Eksteen
Recycling 2025, 10(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10020056 - 1 Apr 2025
Viewed by 542
Abstract
Effective and environmentally benign removal of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binders from spent battery electrodes remains a critical hurdle in sustainable recycling, primarily due to issues related to the mitigation of fluorinated compound emissions. This work evaluates PVDF binder removal from cathode active material [...] Read more.
Effective and environmentally benign removal of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binders from spent battery electrodes remains a critical hurdle in sustainable recycling, primarily due to issues related to the mitigation of fluorinated compound emissions. This work evaluates PVDF binder removal from cathode active material using either a green solvent-based dissolution process or pyrolysis, analyzed by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). The solvent pretreatment involved mixing dihydrolevoglucosenone (Cyrene™) with PVDF-coated NMC811 at 100 °C, followed by hot filtration to separate the Cyrene-PVDF solution. Pyrolysis was conducted at 800 °C under an argon atmosphere. Positive ToF-SIMS spectra for Cyrene showed characteristic peaks at ketene (42 m/z) and 1,3-dioxole (86 m/z), along with intense C2H3O+, C3H3O+, C4H7+, and C3H5O+ peaks. The characteristic peaks used to identify PVDF were C3H2F5+ (133 m/z), C3H2F3+ (95 m/z), and C3HF4+ (113 m/z). Both processes resulted in PVDF removal, with pyrolysis demonstrating higher effectiveness. Particle agglomeration was observed in both pretreated NMC811 samples, however agglomeration was more pronounced with Cyrene pretreatment due to PVDF redeposition. Following pyrolysis, PVDF was transformed into a defluorinated carbonaceous material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling)
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18 pages, 3989 KiB  
Article
Product and Process Data Structure for Automated Battery Disassembly
by Domenic Klohs, Moritz Frieges, Jonas Gorsch, Philip Ellmann, Heiner Hans Heimes and Achim Kampker
Recycling 2025, 10(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10010025 - 14 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 976
Abstract
Battery disassembly forms a central jumping-off point for recycling in the context of a sustainable closure of the battery loop. The main objective for economic realization in line with European recycling regulations is therefore a transformation of the battery disassembly from a manual [...] Read more.
Battery disassembly forms a central jumping-off point for recycling in the context of a sustainable closure of the battery loop. The main objective for economic realization in line with European recycling regulations is therefore a transformation of the battery disassembly from a manual to an automated process. Product-related influences such as design variations and process-side constraints including the selection of disassembly technologies require large amounts of data for implementation in an automated system. This article examines accessible data sources in the literature and the upcoming battery passport to build a basis for a multi-layered methodical analysis of the data required for the automation of battery disassembly. For this purpose, the disassembly sequence and depth of an Audi e-tron battery pack are first identified using a priority matrix and converted into a product and process structure. Definitions for product- and process-related elements are established, and a generalized process model is developed, which is finally converted into a data structure model approach. The result shows that much of the required data to automate the disassembly of used batteries are currently not yet available. Further efforts must be made to establish data structures and standards regarding product- and process-related disassembly data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling)
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28 pages, 4462 KiB  
Article
Analyzing Organic Electrolyte Solvents from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries as a Basis for Distillative Value Component Recovery
by Martin Wolke, Kai Schröder, Konstantin Arnold, Pamina Mozumder, Till Beuerle, Katharina Jasch and Stephan Scholl
Recycling 2025, 10(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10010019 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1122
Abstract
The rapid expansion of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), largely driven by the rising demand for electric vehicles, will lead to a significant increase in end-of-life (EOL) batteries, necessitating efficient recycling processes, which must be accompanied by equally efficient purification steps. This study addresses the [...] Read more.
The rapid expansion of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), largely driven by the rising demand for electric vehicles, will lead to a significant increase in end-of-life (EOL) batteries, necessitating efficient recycling processes, which must be accompanied by equally efficient purification steps. This study addresses the challenge of reusing organic electrolyte solvents from spent LIBs, a key component often overlooked in existing recycling strategies. To address this issue, we developed a gas chromatography (GC) method. A variety of spent electrolyte samples of different origin, including mechanical-thermal pretreatment or direct cell recovery, were analyzed by quantification of common solvents and identified organic impurities. Results demonstrated that the composition of the recovered electrolytes was highly variable, with concentrations fluctuating. Impurities were identified, which may originate from various sources throughout the lifespan of an LIB and have the potential to reduce the performance of second-life LIBs by reusing the electrolyte without any purification. The findings highlight the necessity for advanced purification methods like a distillation process to remove these impurities and ensure the viability of recycled electrolytes in maintaining the performance and safety standards required for LIBs. This research contributes to the broader goal of enhancing the sustainability and reuse of battery materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling)
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Review

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40 pages, 2834 KiB  
Review
Sustainable Recycling of End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries: EV Battery Recycling Frameworks in China and the USA
by Amjad Ali, Mujtaba Al Bahrani, Shoaib Ahmed, Md Tasbirul Islam, Sikandar Abdul Qadir and Muhammad Shahid
Recycling 2025, 10(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10020068 - 10 Apr 2025
Viewed by 597
Abstract
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to a surge in end-of-life (EOL) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), necessitating efficient recycling strategies to mitigate environmental risks and recover critical materials. This study compares the EV battery recycling frameworks in China and the United [...] Read more.
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to a surge in end-of-life (EOL) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), necessitating efficient recycling strategies to mitigate environmental risks and recover critical materials. This study compares the EV battery recycling frameworks in China and the United States, focusing on policy effectiveness, technological advancements, and material recovery efficiencies. China’s extended producer responsibility (EPR) policies and 14th Five-Year Plan mandate strict recycling targets, achieving a 40% battery recycling rate with 90% material recovery efficiency. Hydrometallurgical methods dominate, reducing energy consumption by 50% compared to virgin material extraction. The US, leveraging incentive-based mechanisms and private sector innovations, has a 35% recycling rate but a higher 95% resource recovery efficiency, mainly due to direct recycling and AI-based sorting technologies. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, including high recycling costs, inconsistent global regulations, and supply chain inefficiencies. To enhance sustainability, this study recommends harmonized international policies, investment in next-generation recycling technologies, and second-life battery applications. Emerging innovations, such as AI-driven sorting and direct cathode regeneration, could increase recovery efficiency by 20–30%, further reducing lifecycle costs. By integrating synergistic policies and advanced recycling infrastructures, China and the US can set a global precedent for sustainable EV battery management, driving the transition toward a circular economy. Future research should explore life cycle cost analysis and battery reuse strategies to optimize long-term sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling)
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26 pages, 3662 KiB  
Review
Pathways to Circular Economy for Electric Vehicle Batteries
by Subin Antony Jose, Lyndsey Dworkin, Saihan Montano, William Charles Noack, Nick Rusche, Daniel Williams and Pradeep L. Menezes
Recycling 2024, 9(5), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling9050076 - 11 Sep 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8206
Abstract
The global shift towards sustainability is driving the electrification of transportation and the adoption of clean energy storage solutions, moving away from internal combustion engines. This transition significantly impacts lithium-ion battery production in the electric vehicle (EV) market. This paper summarizes specialized topics [...] Read more.
The global shift towards sustainability is driving the electrification of transportation and the adoption of clean energy storage solutions, moving away from internal combustion engines. This transition significantly impacts lithium-ion battery production in the electric vehicle (EV) market. This paper summarizes specialized topics to highlight regional differences and specific challenges related to electric batteries, focusing on how pollution from gas consumption, distribution, usage, and lithium production affects society. EV batteries offer promising opportunities for a sustainable future, considering their economic and environmental impacts and the importance of understanding their lifecycle. This analysis delves into the recovery of materials and various methods for extracting lithium and manufacturing EV batteries. Efficient lithium recovery is crucial and globally significant, with liquid extraction presenting a more environmentally friendly option. By addressing these challenges, this paper provides an overview of the rationale behind supporting the future of EVs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion and Next-Generation Batteries Recycling)
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