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Polymers
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Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility
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Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2023) | Viewed by 51386

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Didier Perrin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Polymers Composites Hybrids (PCH) Team, Center of Materials - IMT MINES ALES, 6, Avenue de Clavières, F-30319 Alès, France
Interests: study of stryctural/property relationships in multi-phase polymeric systems; applications to control of the life cycle of polymeric materials; development of efficient second life polymer-based materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The efficient ecodesign of secondary raw materials from recycled multiphase polymer systems is performed through the:

  • study of the compatibility of mixtures of recycled polymers where work on knowledge of the miscibility of mixtures depends on the different rates and the nature of the constituents;
  • study of the aging of recycled polymers in terms of the structuring of end-of-life polymers, which may have changed their starting structure due to degradation or aging;
  • compatibility of mixtures of polymers recycled by additive treatments and/or reactive pre-treatments: integration of coupling agents or reactants in situ at the interface of the mixtures; this compatibility can be linked beforehand to reactive pre-treatments (plasma, corona, heat / chemical treatments) on each of the phases.

The selection of these three themes follows a study cycle logic on the development of formulations of blends of recycled polymers, in which compatibilization affects the morphology and therefore the miscibility of blends of polymers in relation to their structure.

Prof. Dr. Didier Perrin
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymer
  • composite
  • end of life 
  • ecodesign 
  • miscibility
  • compatibilisation
  • blend 
  • ageing (aging)
  • treatment
  • secondary raw materials

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3568 KiB  
Article
Polypropylene Post-Consumer Recyclate Compounds for Thermoforming Packaging Applications
by Paul J. Freudenthaler, Joerg Fischer, Yi Liu and Reinhold W. Lang
Polymers 2023, 15(2), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020345 - 09 Jan 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2049
Abstract
Polypropylene (PP) plastic packaging waste consists of a variety of different plastic packaging products with a great span in rheological and mechanical behavior. Therefore, the resulting post-consumer recyclates usually show melt mass-flow rates (MFR) in the region of injection molding grades and intermediate [...] Read more.
Polypropylene (PP) plastic packaging waste consists of a variety of different plastic packaging products with a great span in rheological and mechanical behavior. Therefore, the resulting post-consumer recyclates usually show melt mass-flow rates (MFR) in the region of injection molding grades and intermediate mechanical properties. High-quality packaging applications demand a distinct property profile that is met by tailor-made PP grades and cannot be met by recyclates with intermediate performance. One such application with high market volume is high-stiffness thermoforming trays. The aim of this research was to blend intermediate-performance recyclates with a virgin PP grade to obtain compounds that fulfill the rheological and mechanical demands of this application. Three commercially available PP post-consumer recyclates were acquired and compounded with different blending ratios with a high stiffness, low MFR virgin PP grade. As the pure recyclates show different rheological properties, the blending ratios had to be adapted for each of them to fit into the MFR range of 2–4 g/10 min which is desirable for thermoforming applications. The resulting PP recyclate compounds show a distinct correlation of recyclate content with rheological and mechanical performance. However, the resulting property profile was directly dependent on the performance of the originally used recyclate. The best-performing recyclate could be used in a blending ratio of 65 m% recyclate content while adhering to both property limits, the MFR of 2–4 g/10 min and the lower bound tensile stiffness of 1500 MPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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17 pages, 4535 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Commercially Available Polyethylene Recyclates for Blow Molding Applications by a Novel Environmental Stress Cracking Method
by Paul J. Freudenthaler, Joerg Fischer and Reinhold W. Lang
Polymers 2023, 15(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010046 - 22 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1502
Abstract
The transition to a circular economy has a major impact on waste management and the reuse of materials. New mandatory recycling targets for plastics will lead to a high availability of recyclates. For these recyclates, useful applications need to be found. One potential [...] Read more.
The transition to a circular economy has a major impact on waste management and the reuse of materials. New mandatory recycling targets for plastics will lead to a high availability of recyclates. For these recyclates, useful applications need to be found. One potential application for recyclates is blow molding bottles as packaging for non-food contents. This study investigates commercially available post-consumer high-density polyethylene recyclates together with virgin blow molding grades in terms of their short-term mechanical properties and environmental stress cracking resistance. While the short-term mechanical properties showed only slightly lower performance than the tested virgin grades, the overall environmental stress cracking failure times of the recyclates were much lower compared to virgin materials, even though the crack-growth kinetics could be similar. Although neither the tensile nor the notched impact strength results of the two polyethylene recyclates revealed large differences, the stress intensity-factor-dependent crack-growth rates of both materials were significantly different. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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17 pages, 6073 KiB  
Article
Potent Application of Scrap from the Modified Natural Rubber Production as Oil Absorbent
by Anoma Thitithammawong, Sitisaiyidah Saiwari, Subhan Salaeh and Nabil Hayeemasae
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5066; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235066 - 22 Nov 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1086
Abstract
The production of raw natural rubber always ends up with leftover latex. This latex is later collected to produce low grades of rubber. The collection of this latex also depends on the latex’s quality. However, reproducing the latex may not be applicable if [...] Read more.
The production of raw natural rubber always ends up with leftover latex. This latex is later collected to produce low grades of rubber. The collection of this latex also depends on the latex’s quality. However, reproducing the latex may not be applicable if the latex contains many specks of dirt which will eventually be discarded. In this work, an alternative solution was to utilize such rubber in a processable form. This scrap rubber (SR) from the production of natural rubber grafted with polymethyl methacrylate (NR-g-PMMA) production was recovered to prepare an oil-swellable rubber. The rubber blends were turned into cellular structures to increase the oil swellability. To find the suitable formulation and cellular structure of the foam, the foams were prepared by blending SR with virgin natural rubber (NR) at various ratios, namely 0/100, 20/80, 30/70, 50/50, 70/30, 80/20, and 100/0 (phr/phr). The foam formation strongly depended on the SR, as it prevented gas penetration throughout the matrix. Consequently, small cells and thick cell walls were observed. This structure reduced the oil swellability from 7.09 g/g to 5.02 g/g. However, it is interesting to highlight that the thermal stability of the foam increased over the addition of SR, which is likely due to the higher thermal stability of the NR-g-PMMA waste or SR. In summary, the blending NR with 30 phr of SR provided good oil swellability, processability, and morphology, which benefit oil recovery application. The results obtained from this study will be used for further experiments on the enhancement of oil absorbency by applying other key factors. This work is considered a good initiative for preparing the oil-absorbent material based on scrap from modified natural rubber production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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9 pages, 2058 KiB  
Article
Pyrolysis of Denim Jeans Waste: Pyrolytic Product Modification by the Addition of Sodium Carbonate
by Junghee Joo, Heeyoung Choi, Kun-Yi Andrew Lin and Jechan Lee
Polymers 2022, 14(22), 5035; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14225035 - 21 Nov 2022
Viewed by 1574
Abstract
Quickly changing fashion trends generate tremendous amounts of textile waste globally. The inhomogeneity and complicated nature of textile waste make its recycling challenging. Hence, it is urgent to develop a feasible method to extract value from textile waste. Pyrolysis is an effective waste-to-energy [...] Read more.
Quickly changing fashion trends generate tremendous amounts of textile waste globally. The inhomogeneity and complicated nature of textile waste make its recycling challenging. Hence, it is urgent to develop a feasible method to extract value from textile waste. Pyrolysis is an effective waste-to-energy option to processing waste feedstocks having an inhomogeneous and complicated nature. Herein, pyrolysis of denim jeans waste (DJW; a textile waste surrogate) was performed in a continuous flow pyrolyser. The effects of adding sodium carbonate (Na2CO3; feedstock/Na2CO3 = 10, weight basis) to the DJW pyrolysis on the yield and composition of pyrolysates were explored. For the DJW pyrolysis, using Na2CO3 as an additive increased the yields of gas and solid phase pyrolysates and decreased the yield of liquid phase pyrolysate. The highest yield of the gas phase pyrolysate was 34.1 wt% at 800 °C in the presence of Na2CO3. The addition of Na2CO3 could increase the contents of combustible gases such as H2 and CO in the gas phase pyrolysate in comparison with the DJW pyrolysis without Na2CO3. The maximum yield of the liquid phase pyrolysate obtained with Na2CO3 was 62.5 wt% at 400 °C. The composition of the liquid phase pyrolysate indicated that the Na2CO3 additive decreased the contents of organic acids, which potentially improve its fuel property by reducing acid value. The results indicated that Na2CO3 can be a potential additive to pyrolysis to enhance energy recovery from DJW. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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14 pages, 3862 KiB  
Article
Compressive and Flexural Strengths of Mortars Containing ABS and WEEE Based Plastic Aggregates
by Youssef El Bitouri and Didier Perrin
Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3914; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183914 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1828
Abstract
The incorporation of plastic aggregates as a partial replacement of natural aggregates in cementitious materials is interesting in several ways. From a mechanical point of view, the partial substitution of sand with plastic aggregates could improve some properties (e.g., ductility, thermal insulation). This [...] Read more.
The incorporation of plastic aggregates as a partial replacement of natural aggregates in cementitious materials is interesting in several ways. From a mechanical point of view, the partial substitution of sand with plastic aggregates could improve some properties (e.g., ductility, thermal insulation). This paper deals with the mechanical strength of mortars containing plastic aggregates as a partial replacement of sand. Part of the volume of sand in cement mortars is substituted with plastic aggregates which originate from WEEE (Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment) and consist of a mix of ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene), HIPS (high impact polystyrene) and PP (Polypropylene), or of monomaterial ABS from WEEE sorting. Three rates of replacement (by volume of sand) were tested: 10%, 15% and 30%. Mechanical tests were performed according to European standard EN196-1. The results show that compressive and flexural strength decrease with rate of replacement, but remain satisfactory for structural purposes. In addition, the density of mortar is reduced with the incorporation of plastic aggregates. The decrease of mechanical strength is mainly due to the weak bond between cement paste and plastic aggregates leading to the increase of porosity. Furthermore, it appears that mortars containing plastic aggregates could present a ductile rupture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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15 pages, 4540 KiB  
Article
Influence of Biofillers on the Properties of Regrind Crystalline Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (CPET)
by Victor S. Cecon, Greg W. Curtzwiler and Keith L. Vorst
Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3210; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153210 - 06 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2060
Abstract
As the demand for plastics only increases, new methods are required to economically and sustainably increase plastic usage without landfill and environmental accumulation. In addition, the use of biofillers is encouraged as a way to reduce the cost of the final resin by [...] Read more.
As the demand for plastics only increases, new methods are required to economically and sustainably increase plastic usage without landfill and environmental accumulation. In addition, the use of biofillers is encouraged as a way to reduce the cost of the final resin by incorporating agricultural and industrial waste by-products, such as rice hulls and coffee chaff to further reduce waste being sent to landfills. Crystalline poly(ethylene terephthalate) (CPET) is a resin commonly used for microwave and ovenable food packaging containers that have not been fully explored for recycling. In this article, we investigate how the incorporation of biofillers at 5% wt. and 10% wt. impacts critical polymer properties. The thermal and mechanical properties were not significantly altered with the presence of rice hulls or coffee chaff in the polymer matrix at 5% wt. loading, but some reduction in melt temperature, thermal stability, and maximum stress and strain was more noticed at 10% wt. The complex viscosity was also reduced with the introduction of biofillers. The levels of heavy metals of concern, such as Cd, Cr, and Pb, were below the regulatory limits applicable in the United States and Europe. Additional studies are suggested to improve the performance of CPET/biofiller blends by pre-treating the biofiller and using compatibilizers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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22 pages, 7265 KiB  
Article
Chemical Recycling of Vacuum-Infused Thermoplastic Acrylate-Based Composites Reinforced by Basalt Fabrics
by Inès Meyer zu Reckendorf, Amel Sahki, Didier Perrin, Clément Lacoste, Anne Bergeret, Avigaël Ohayon and Karynn Morand
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061083 - 08 Mar 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2963
Abstract
The objective of this work was to compare the material recovered from different chemical recycling methodologies for thermoplastic acrylate-based composites reinforced by basalt fabrics and manufactured by vacuum infusion. Recycling was done via chemical dissolution with a preselected adapted solvent. The main goal [...] Read more.
The objective of this work was to compare the material recovered from different chemical recycling methodologies for thermoplastic acrylate-based composites reinforced by basalt fabrics and manufactured by vacuum infusion. Recycling was done via chemical dissolution with a preselected adapted solvent. The main goal of the study was to recover undamaged basalt fabrics in order to reuse them as reinforcements for “second-generation” composites. Two protocols were compared. The first one is based on an ultrasound technique, the second one on mechanical stirring. Dissolution kinetics as well as residual resin percentages were evaluated. Several parameters such as dissolution duration, dissolution temperature, and solvent/composite ratio were also studied. Recycled fabrics were characterized through SEM observations. Mechanical and thermomechanical properties of second-generation composites were determined and compared to those of virgin composites (called “first-generation” composites). The results show that the dissolution protocol using a mechanical stirring is more adapted to recover undamaged fabrics with no residual resin on their surface. Moreover, corresponding second-generation composites display equivalent mechanical properties than first generation ones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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32 pages, 9153 KiB  
Article
Risk Analysis on PMMA Recycling Economics
by Jacopo De Tommaso and Jean-Luc Dubois
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2724; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162724 - 15 Aug 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5680
Abstract
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is a versatile polymer with a forecast market of 4 Mtons/y by 2025, and 6 USD billion by 2027. Each year, 10% of the produced cast sheets, extrusion sheets, or granules PMMA end up as post-production waste, accounting for approximately [...] Read more.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is a versatile polymer with a forecast market of 4 Mtons/y by 2025, and 6 USD billion by 2027. Each year, 10% of the produced cast sheets, extrusion sheets, or granules PMMA end up as post-production waste, accounting for approximately 30 000 tons/y in Europe only. To guide the future recycling efforts, we investigated the risks of depolymerization process economics for different PMMA scraps feedstock, capital expenditure (CAPEX), and regenerated MMA (r-MMA) prices via a Monte-Carlo simulation. An analysis of plastic recycling plants operating with similar technologies confirmed how a maximum 10 M USD plant (median cost) is what a company should aim for, based on our hypothesis. The capital investment and the r-MMA quality have the main impacts on the profitability. Depending on the pursued outcome, we identified three most suitable scenarios. Lower capital-intensive plants (Scenarios 4 and 8) provide the fastest payback time, but this generates a lower quality monomer, and therefore lower appeal on the long term. On 10 or 20 years of operation, companies should target the very best r-MMA quality, to achieve the highest net present value (Scenario 6). Product quality comes from the feedstock choice, depolymerization, and purification technologies. Counterintuitively, a plant processing low quality scraps available for free (Scenario 7), and therefore producing low purity r-MMA, has the highest probability of negative net present value after 10 years of operation, making it a high-risk scenario. Western countries (especially Europe), call for more and more pure r-MMA, hopefully comparable to the virgin material. With legislations on recycled products becoming more stringent, low quality product might not find a market in the future. To convince shareholders and government bodies, companies should demonstrate how funds and subsidies directly translate into higher quality products (more attractive to costumers), more economically viable, and with a wider market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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17 pages, 4267 KiB  
Article
Polyethylene/Polyamide Blends Made of Waste with Compatibilizer: Processing, Morphology, Rheological and Thermo-Mechanical Behavior
by Dorota Czarnecka-Komorowska, Jagoda Nowak-Grzebyta, Katarzyna Gawdzińska, Olga Mysiukiewicz and Małgorzata Tomasik
Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2385; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142385 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5479
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop a polyethylene/polyamide (R-PE/R-PA) regranulated product made from post-consumer wastes grafted with polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride (PE-g-MAH) by reactive extrusion in a twin-screw extruder equipped with an external mixing zone. The compatibility effect of PE-g-MAH used as a [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to develop a polyethylene/polyamide (R-PE/R-PA) regranulated product made from post-consumer wastes grafted with polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride (PE-g-MAH) by reactive extrusion in a twin-screw extruder equipped with an external mixing zone. The compatibility effect of PE-g-MAH used as a modifier in R-PE/R-PA blends was evaluated by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), while the analysis of the chemical structure of this blend was carried out by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The thermal properties, complex viscosity, and selected usage properties of R-PE/R-PA blends compatibilized with PE-g-MAH, i.e., density and water absorption, were evaluated. The morphology of the blends with and without the compatibilizer was observed by scanning electron microscopy. The R-PE/R-PA/MAH blend shows heterogenic structure, which is a result of the chemical reaction in reactive extrusion between functional groups of PE-g-MAH used as modifier and the end groups of R-PA6. The results show that the R-PE/R-PA blend with increased PE-g-MAH content showed increased hardness, stiffness, and ultimate tensile strength due to the increased degree of crystallinity. The increase in crystallinity is proportional to the improvement of the mechanical properties. Moreover, it is shown that 1 wt.% PE-g-MAH added to the R-PE/R-PA waste blend increases the interfacial interactions and compatibility between R-PE and R-PA, resulting in decreased polyamide particle size. Finally, the results show that it is possible to produce good quality regranulated products with advantageous properties and structure from immiscible polymer waste for industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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19 pages, 9431 KiB  
Article
Effects of Recycled Fe2O3 Nanofiller on the Structural, Thermal, Mechanical, Dielectric, and Magnetic Properties of PTFE Matrix
by Ahmad Mamoun Khamis, Zulkifly Abbas, Raba’ah Syahidah Azis, Ebenezer Ekow Mensah and Ibrahim Abubakar Alhaji
Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2332; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142332 - 16 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2222
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to improve the dielectric, magnetic, and thermal properties of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) composites using recycled Fe2O3 (rFe2O3) nanofiller. Hematite (Fe2O3) was recycled from mill scale waste and [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to improve the dielectric, magnetic, and thermal properties of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) composites using recycled Fe2O3 (rFe2O3) nanofiller. Hematite (Fe2O3) was recycled from mill scale waste and the particle size was reduced to 11.3 nm after 6 h of high-energy ball milling. Different compositions (5–25 wt %) of rFe2O3 nanoparticles were incorporated as a filler in the PTFE matrix through a hydraulic pressing and sintering method in order to fabricate rFe2O3–PTFE nanocomposites. The microstructure properties of rFe2O3 nanoparticles and the nanocomposites were characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The thermal expansion coefficients (CTEs) of the PTFE matrix and nanocomposites were determined using a dilatometer apparatus. The complex permittivity and permeability were measured using rectangular waveguide connected to vector network analyzer (VNA) in the frequency range 8.2–12.4 GHz. The CTE of PTFE matrix decreased from 65.28×10−6/°C to 39.84×10−6/°C when the filler loading increased to 25 wt %. The real (ε′) and imaginary (ε″) parts of permittivity increased with the rFe2O3 loading and reached maximum values of 3.1 and 0.23 at 8 GHz when the filler loading was increased from 5 to 25 wt %. A maximum complex permeability of 1.1−j0.07 was also achieved by 25 wt % nanocomposite at 10 GHz. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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28 pages, 10106 KiB  
Article
Degradation of Styrenic Plastics during Recycling: Accommodation of PP within ABS after WEEE Plastics Imperfect Sorting
by Charles Signoret, Pierre Girard, Agathe Le Guen, Anne-Sophie Caro-Bretelle, José-Marie Lopez-Cuesta, Patrick Ienny and Didier Perrin
Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091439 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2592
Abstract
With the development of dark polymers for industrial sorting technologies, economically profitable recycling of plastics from Waste Electrical and Electronical Equipment (WEEE) can be envisaged even in the presence of residual impurities. In ABS extracted from WEEE, PP is expected to be the [...] Read more.
With the development of dark polymers for industrial sorting technologies, economically profitable recycling of plastics from Waste Electrical and Electronical Equipment (WEEE) can be envisaged even in the presence of residual impurities. In ABS extracted from WEEE, PP is expected to be the more detrimental because of its important lack of compatibility. Hence, PP was incorporated to ABS at different rates (2 to 8 wt%) with a twin-screw extruder. PP was shown to exhibit a nodular morphology with an average diameter around 1–2 µm. Tensile properties were importantly diminished beyond 4 wt% but impact resistance was decreased even at 2 wt%. Both properties were strongly reduced as function of the contamination rate. Various potential compatibilizers for the ABS + 4 wt% PP system were evaluated: PPH-g-MA, PPC-g-MA, ABS-g-MA, TPE-g-MA, SEBS and PP-g-SAN. SEBS was found the most promising, leading to diminution of nodule sizes and also acting as an impact modifier. Finally, a Design Of Experiments using the Response Surface Methodology (DOE-RSM) was applied to visualize the impacts and interactions of extrusion temperature and screw speed on impact resistance of compatibilized and uncompatibilized ABS + 4 wt% PP systems. Resilience improvements were obtained for the uncompatibilized system and interactions between extrusion parameters and compatibilizers were noticed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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Review

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31 pages, 2128 KiB  
Review
Possibility Routes for Textile Recycling Technology
by Damayanti Damayanti, Latasya Adelia Wulandari, Adhanto Bagaskoro, Aditya Rianjanu and Ho-Shing Wu
Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3834; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213834 - 06 Nov 2021
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 20709
Abstract
The fashion industry contributes to a significant environmental issue due to the increasing production and needs of the industry. The proactive efforts toward developing a more sustainable process via textile recycling has become the preferable solution. This urgent and important need to develop [...] Read more.
The fashion industry contributes to a significant environmental issue due to the increasing production and needs of the industry. The proactive efforts toward developing a more sustainable process via textile recycling has become the preferable solution. This urgent and important need to develop cheap and efficient recycling methods for textile waste has led to the research community’s development of various recycling methods. The textile waste recycling process can be categorized into chemical and mechanical recycling methods. This paper provides an overview of the state of the art regarding different types of textile recycling technologies along with their current challenges and limitations. The critical parameters determining recycling performance are summarized and discussed and focus on the current challenges in mechanical and chemical recycling (pyrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, hydrothermal, ammonolysis, and glycolysis). Textile waste has been demonstrated to be re-spun into yarn (re-woven or knitted) by spinning carded yarn and mixed shoddy through mechanical recycling. On the other hand, it is difficult to recycle some textiles by means of enzymatic hydrolysis; high product yield has been shown under mild temperatures. Furthermore, the emergence of existing technology such as the internet of things (IoT) being implemented to enable efficient textile waste sorting and identification is also discussed. Moreover, we provide an outlook as to upcoming technological developments that will contribute to facilitating the circular economy, allowing for a more sustainable textile recycling process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycled Polymers: Eco-Design, Structure/Property Relationships and Compatibility)
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