Submit to Polymers Review for Polymers Propose a Special Issue

Journal Browser

Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology

Print Special Issue Flyer
Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Keywords
Published Papers

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 55579

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology book cover image

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Houwen Matthew Pan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University SPMS-CBC-05-05, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
Interests: biomaterials; bioprinting; 3D/4D printing; polymer synthesis

Prof. Dr. Eric Luis

E-Mail
Guest Editor

Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau
Interests: silicone 3D/4D printing; AI in 3D printing; minimally invasive surgery – technologies; biomaterials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Advances made in 3D/4D printing has opened new avenues for innovation in regenerative medicine, aerospace, manufacturing, construction, and electronics. Current state-of-the-art for 3D/4D printing technologies include VAT photo-polymerisation, material jetting, binder jetting, material extrusion and powder bed fusion. To match the development made in printing technologies, a myriad of printing materials with advanced functionalities have also been invented. The wide array of advanced 3D/4D printing materials include cytoprotective and cytocompatible bioinks, flexible and conductive printing inks, modular bioinks, stimuli-responsive polymer inks, hydrogel composite systems, adaptive soft materials, shape memory materials, and heat-curable silicone printing ink.

Combining cutting-edge 3D/4D printing technologies with advanced materials have given rise to disruptive breakthroughs in research such as complex designs in flexible electronics, biofabrication of humans-sized organs, adaptive soft robotics, personalized prosthesis and biomedicine. However, significant challenges still lie ahead and problems relating to material selection, multimaterial printing, print scalability, material processability, structure integrity and stability still need to be solved before we can adopt 3D/4D printing technologies on a much larger scale.

The goal of this Special Issue is to publish state-of-the-art reviews, original research articles as well as communications and letters from leaders in the field of 3D/4D printing. The topic focus will be on 3D/4D printing materials with novel and/or advanced functionalities. Submissions centering on novel applications of 3DP material, material synthesis and/or characterization are also welcomed.

Dr. Houwen Matthew Pan
Prof. Dr. Eric Luis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Modular bioinks
Stimuli-responsive polymers
Hydrogel composites
Silicone
Biomaterials
Block copolymers
Shape memory
Biomimetic
Conductive polymers
Smart materials

Published Papers (12 papers)

Download All Papers

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 149 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology

by Houwen Matthew Pan

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3255; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163255 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1233

Abstract

Advances made in 3D printing have opened new avenues for innovation in dental, aerospace, soft robotics, thermal regulation, and flexible electronic devices [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 4895 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bio-Inspired 4D Printing of Dynamic Spider Silks

by Guiwei Li, Qi Tian, Wenzheng Wu, Shida Yang, Qian Wu, Yihang Zhao, Jiaqing Wang, Xueli Zhou, Kunyang Wang, Luquan Ren, Ji Zhao and Qingping Liu

Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2069; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102069 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2352

Abstract

Spider silks exhibit excellent mechanical properties and have promising application prospects in engineering fields. Because natural spider silk fibers cannot be manufactured on a large scale, researchers have attempted to fabricate bio-inspired spider silks. However, the fabrication of bio-inspired spider silks with dynamically tunable mechanical properties and stimulation–response characteristics remains a challenge. Herein, the 4D printing of shape memory polyurethane is employed to produce dynamic bio-inspired spider silks. The bio-inspired spider silks have two types of energy-absorbing units that can be adjusted, one by means of 4D printing with predefined nodes, and the other through different stimulation methods to make the bio-inspired spider silks contract and undergo spiral deformation. The shape morphing behaviors of bio-inspired spider silks are programmed via pre-stress assemblies enabled by 4D printing. The energy-absorbing units of bio-inspired spider silks can be dynamically adjusted owing to stress release generated with the stimuli of temperature or humidity. Therefore, the mechanical properties of bio-inspired spider silks can be controlled to change dynamically. This can further help in developing applications of bio-inspired spider silks in engineering fields with dynamic changes of environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 7999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Copper Complexes as Visible Light Photoinitiators for the Synthesis of Interpenetrating Polymer Networks (IPNs)

by Mahmoud Rahal, Guillaume Noirbent, Bernadette Graff, Joumana Toufaily, Tayssir Hamieh, Didier Gigmes, Frédéric Dumur and Jacques Lalevée

Polymers 2022, 14(10), 1998; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14101998 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2227

Abstract

This work is devoted to the study of two copper complexes (Cu) bearing pyridine ligands, which were synthesized, evaluated and tested as new visible light photoinitiators for the free radical photopolymerization (FRP) of acrylates functional groups in thick and thin samples upon light-emitting diodes (LED) at 405 and 455 nm irradiation. These latter wavelengths are considered to be safe to produce polymer materials. The photoinitiation abilities of these organometallic compounds were evaluated in combination with an iodonium (Iod) salt and/or amine (e.g., N-phenylglycine—NPG). Interestingly, high final conversions and high polymerization rates were obtained for both compounds using two and three-component photoinitiating systems (Cu1 (or Cu2)/Iodonium salt (Iod) (0.1%/1% w/w) and Cu1 (or Cu2)/Iod/amine (0.1%/1%/1% w/w/w)). The new proposed copper complexes were also used for direct laser write experiments involving a laser diode at 405 nm, and for the photocomposite synthesis with glass fibers using a UV-conveyor at 395 nm. To explain the obtained polymerization results, different methods and characterization techniques were used: steady-state photolysis, real-time Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (RT-FTIR), emission spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 2178 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Integration of Biofunctional Molecules into 3D-Printed Polymeric Micro-/Nanostructures

by Eider Berganza, Gurunath Apte, Srivatsan K. Vasantham, Thi-Huong Nguyen and Michael Hirtz

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071327 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3139

Abstract

Three-dimensional printing at the micro-/nanoscale represents a new challenge in research and development to achieve direct printing down to nanometre-sized objects. Here, FluidFM, a combination of microfluidics with atomic force microscopy, offers attractive options to fabricate hierarchical polymer structures at different scales. However, little is known about the effect of the substrate on the printed structures and the integration of (bio)functional groups into the polymer inks. In this study, we printed micro-/nanostructures on surfaces with different wetting properties, and integrated molecules with different functional groups (rhodamine as a fluorescent label and biotin as a binding tag for proteins) into the base polymer ink. The substrate wetting properties strongly affected the printing results, in that the lateral feature sizes increased with increasing substrate hydrophilicity. Overall, ink modification only caused minor changes in the stiffness of the printed structures. This shows the generality of the approach, as significant changes in the mechanical properties on chemical functionalization could be confounders in bioapplications. The retained functionality of the obtained structures after UV curing was demonstrated by selective binding of streptavidin to the printed structures. The ability to incorporate binding tags to achieve specific interactions between relevant proteins and the fabricated micro-/nanostructures, without compromising the mechanical properties, paves a way for numerous bio and sensing applications. Additional flexibility is obtained by tuning the substrate properties for feature size control, and the option to obtain functionalized printed structures without post-processing procedures will contribute to the development of 3D printing for biological applications, using FluidFM and similar dispensing techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 5253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of 3D-Printed PLA Structure on Sound Reflection Properties

by Katarina Monkova, Martin Vasina, Peter Pavol Monka, Jan Vanca and Dražan Kozak

Polymers 2022, 14(3), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030413 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4239

Abstract

3D printing technique is currently one of the promising emerging technologies. It is used in many areas of human activity, including acoustic applications. This paper focuses on studying the sound reflection behavior of four different types of 3D-printed open-porous polylactic acid (PLA) material structures, namely cartesian, octagonal, rhomboid and starlit structures. Sound reflection properties were evaluated by means of the normal incidence sound reflection coefficient based on the transfer function method using an acoustic impedance tube. In this study, various factors affecting the sound reflection performance of the investigated PLA samples were evaluated. It can be concluded that the sound reflection behavior of the tested PLA specimens was strongly affected by different factors. It was influenced, not only by the type of 3D-printed open-porous material structure, but also by the excitation frequency, the total volume porosity, the specimen thickness, and the air gap size behind the tested specimen inside the acoustic impedance tube. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 6479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molds with Advanced Materials for Carbon Fiber Manufacturing with 3D Printing Technology

by Patrich Ferretti, Gian Maria Santi, Christian Leon-Cardenas, Marco Freddi, Giampiero Donnici, Leonardo Frizziero and Alfredo Liverani

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3700; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213700 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2801

Abstract

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing is the most widespread technology in additive manufacturing worldwide that thanks to its low costs, finished component applications, and the production process of other parts. The need for lighter and higher-performance components has led to an increased usage of polymeric matrix composites in many fields ranging from automotive to aerospace. The molds used to manufacture these components are made with different technologies, depending on the number of pieces to be made. Usually, they are fiberglass molds with a thin layer of gelcoat to lower the surface roughness and obtain a smooth final surface of the component. Alternatively, they are made from metal, thus making a single carbon fiber prototype very expensive due to the mold build. Making the mold using FDM technology can be a smart solution to reduce costs, but due to the layer deposition process, the roughness is quite high. The surface can be improved by reducing the layer height, but it is still not possible to reach the same degree of surface finish of metallic or gelcoat molds without the use of fillers. Thermoplastic polymers, also used in the FDM process, are generally soluble in specific solvents. This aspect can be exploited to perform chemical smoothing of the external surface of a component. The combination of FDM and chemical smoothing can be a solution to produce low-cost molds with a very good surface finish. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 37769 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

3D Printing of Thermal Insulating Polyimide/Cellulose Nanocrystal Composite Aerogels with Low Dimensional Shrinkage

by Chiao Feng and Sheng-Sheng Yu

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3614; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213614 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4808

Abstract

Polyimide (PI)-based aerogels have been widely applied to aviation, automobiles, and thermal insulation because of their high porosity, low density, and excellent thermal insulating ability. However, the fabrication of PI aerogels is still restricted to the traditional molding process, and it is often challenging to prepare high-performance PI aerogels with complex 3D structures. Interestingly, renewable nanomaterials such as cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) may provide a unique approach for 3D printing, mechanical reinforcement, and shape fidelity of the PI aerogels. Herein, we proposed a facile water-based 3D printable ink with sustainable nanofillers, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). Polyamic acid was first mixed with triethylamine to form an aqueous solution of polyamic acid ammonium salts (PAAS). CNCs were then dispersed in the aqueous PAAS solution to form a reversible physical network for direct ink writing (DIW). Further freeze-drying and thermal imidization produced porous PI/CNC composite aerogels with increased mechanical strength. The concentration of CNCs needed for DIW was reduced in the presence of PAAS, potentially because of the depletion effect of the polymer solution. Further analysis suggested that the physical network of CNCs lowered the shrinkage of aerogels during preparation and improved the shape-fidelity of the PI/CNC composite aerogels. In addition, the composite aerogels retained low thermal conductivity and may be used as heat management materials. Overall, our approach successfully utilized CNCs as rheological modifiers and reinforcement to 3D print strong PI/CNC composite aerogels for advanced thermal regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 91264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Representative Volume Element (RVE) Analysis for Mechanical Characterization of Fused Deposition Modeled Components

by Patrich Ferretti, Gian Maria Santi, Christian Leon-Cardenas, Elena Fusari, Giampiero Donnici and Leonardo Frizziero

Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3555; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203555 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4089

Abstract

Additive manufacturing processes have evolved considerably in the past years, growing into a wide range of products through the use of different materials depending on its application sectors. Nevertheless, the fused deposition modelling (FDM) technique has proven to be an economically feasible process turning additive manufacture technologies from consumer production into a mainstream manufacturing technique. Current advances in the finite element method (FEM) and the computer-aided engineering (CAE) technology are unable to study three-dimensional (3D) printed models, since the final result is highly dependent on processing and environment parameters. Because of that, an in-depth understanding of the printed geometrical mesostructure is needed to extend FEM applications. This study aims to generate a homogeneous structural element that accurately represents the behavior of FDM-processed materials, by means of a representative volume element (RVE). The homogenization summarizes the main mechanical characteristics of the actual 3D printed structure, opening new analysis and optimization procedures. Moreover, the linear RVE results can be used to further analyze the in-deep behavior of the FDM unit cell. Therefore, industries could perform a feasible engineering analysis of the final printed elements, allowing the FDM technology to become a mainstream, low-cost manufacturing process in the near future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Writing Corrugated PVC Gel Artificial Muscle via Multi-Material Printing Processes

by Bin Luo, Yiding Zhong, Hualing Chen, Zicai Zhu and Yanjie Wang

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2734; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162734 - 15 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2761

Abstract

Electroactive PVC gel is a new artificial muscle material with good performance that can mimic the movement of biological muscle in an electric field. However, traditional manufacturing methods, such as casting, prevent the broad application of this promising material because they cannot achieve the integration of the PVC gel electrode and core layer, and at the same time, it is difficult to create complex and diverse structures. In this study, a multi-material, integrated direct writing method is proposed to fabricate corrugated PVC gel artificial muscle. Inks with suitable rheological properties were developed for printing four functional layers, including core layers, electrode layers, sacrificial layers, and insulating layers, with different characteristics. The curing conditions of the printed CNT/SMP inks under different applied conditions were also discussed. The structural parameters were optimized to improve the actuating performance of the PVC gel artificial muscle. The corrugated PVC gel with a span of 1.6 mm had the best actuating performance. Finally, we printed three layers of corrugated PVC gel artificial muscle with good actuating performance. The proposed method can help to solve the inherent shortcomings of traditional manufacturing methods of PVC gel actuators. The printed structures have potential applications in many fields, such as soft robotics and flexible electronic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 30273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of Polyphenylsulfone (PPSF) Powders as Fire-Retardant Materials for Processing by Selective Laser Sintering

by Yifan Lv, Wayne Thomas, Rodger Chalk, Andrew Hewitt and Sarat Singamneni

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2704; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162704 - 13 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1535

Abstract

Additive manufacturing has progressed rapidly, and the unique attributes of the layer-wise material consolidation are attracting ever increasing application potentials in critical sectors such as medical and aerospace industries. A lack of materials options has been the main bottleneck for the much wider uptake of these promising new technologies. Inventing new material alternatives has been central to most of the research attention in additive manufacturing in recent times. The current research is focused on evaluating the polyphenylsulfone polymer powders for the first time as fire-resistant candidate materials for processing by selective laser sintering, the most promising additive processing method for polymeric material systems. Experimental evaluations were undertaken based on a selective laser sintering test bed. Single layer and multi-layer samples were produced for microstructural and mechanical characterisations. The microstructural evaluations and the mechanical property results indicate sufficient intra- and inter-layer consolidation together with reasonable tensile property responses. The lower viscosity and thermal conductivity characteristics rendered lower tensile strengths, which will require some further attention in the future, for better consolidation and mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 8137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacturing a First Upper Molar Dental Forceps Using Continuous Fiber Reinforcement (CFR) Additive Manufacturing Technology with Carbon-Reinforced Polyamide

by Roland Told, Gyula Marada, Szilard Rendeki, Attila Pentek, Balint Nagy, Ferenc Jozsef Molnar and Peter Maroti

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2647; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162647 - 9 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

3D printing is an emerging and disruptive technology, supporting the field of medicine over the past decades. In the recent years, the use of additive manufacturing (AM) has had a strong impact on everyday dental applications. Despite remarkable previous results from interdisciplinary research teams, there is no evidence or recommendation about the proper fabrication of handheld medical devices using desktop 3D printers. The aim of this study was to critically examine and compare the mechanical behavior of materials printed with FFF (fused filament fabrication) and CFR (continuous fiber reinforcement) additive manufacturing technologies, and to create and evaluate a massive and practically usable right upper molar forceps. Flexural and torsion fatigue tests, as well as Shore D measurements, were performed. The tensile strength was also measured in the case of the composite material. The flexural tests revealed the measured force values to have a linear correlation with the bending between the 10 mm (17.06 N at 5000th cycle) and 30 mm (37.99 N at 5000th cycle) deflection range. The findings were supported by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. Based on the results of the mechanical and structural tests, a dental forceps was designed, 3D printed using CFR technology, and validated by five dentists using a Likert scale. In addition, the vertical force of extraction was measured using a unique molar tooth model, where the reference test was carried out using a standard metal right upper molar forceps. Surprisingly, the tests revealed there to be no significant differences between the standard (84.80 N ± 16.96 N) and 3D-printed devices (70.30 N ± 4.41 N) in terms of extraction force in the tested range. The results also highlighted that desktop CFR technology is potentially suitable for the production of handheld medical devices that have to withstand high forces and perform load-bearing functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

37 pages, 12977 KiB

Open AccessReview

3D/4D Printing of Polymers: Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Stereolithography (SLA)

by Abishek Kafle, Eric Luis, Raman Silwal, Houwen Matthew Pan, Pratisthit Lal Shrestha and Anil Kumar Bastola

Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3101; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183101 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 174 | Viewed by 21840

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing is a digital manufacturing process and offers virtually limitless opportunities to develop structures/objects by tailoring material composition, processing conditions, and geometry technically at every point in an object. In this review, we present three different early adopted, however, widely used, polymer-based 3D printing processes; fused deposition modelling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS), and stereolithography (SLA) to create polymeric parts. The main aim of this review is to offer a comparative overview by correlating polymer material-process-properties for three different 3D printing techniques. Moreover, the advanced material-process requirements towards 4D printing via these print methods taking an example of magneto-active polymers is covered. Overall, this review highlights different aspects of these printing methods and serves as a guide to select a suitable print material and 3D print technique for the targeted polymeric material-based applications and also discusses the implementation practices towards 4D printing of polymer-based systems with a current state-of-the-art approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Advanced Materials in 3D/4D Printing Technology

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Published Papers (12 papers)

Editorial

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI