Polymers

Research

14 pages, 6345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D-Printed PLA Mechanical and Viscoelastic Behavior Dependence on the Nozzle Temperature and Printing Orientation

by Lykourgos C. Kontaxis, Dimos Zachos, Aliona Georgali-Fickel, Diana V. Portan, Stefanos P. Zaoutsos and George C. Papanicolaou

Polymers 2025, 17(7), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070913 - 28 Mar 2025

Viewed by 541

Abstract

The present study focuses on the mechanical and viscoelastic characterization of 3D-printed PLA, fabricated in three different printing orientations (0°, 45°, and 90°) and four different nozzle temperatures (210, 220, 230, and 240 °C). By employing a combination of static and dynamic mechanical [...] Read more.

The present study focuses on the mechanical and viscoelastic characterization of 3D-printed PLA, fabricated in three different printing orientations (0°, 45°, and 90°) and four different nozzle temperatures (210, 220, 230, and 240 °C). By employing a combination of static and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) testing, as well as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, this work aims to investigate the relationship between processing parameters and the resulting properties of PLA. DSC results showed that higher nozzle temperatures enhance the degree of crystallinity, which in turn affects the mechanical and viscoelastic behavior of PLA. Regardless of the nozzle temperature, the flexural strength decreased as the printing orientation degrees increased. However, it was found that the higher the nozzle temperature, the higher the flexural strength for the same orientation, and the smaller the strength deviations per specimen. DMA results indicated that as the printing orientation increased, glass transition temperature (T_g) values increased while storage modulus values decreased. At the same time, in both cases, by increasing nozzle temperature, an increase in T_g and a respective increase in storage modulus values is observed due to the increase in the degree of crystallinity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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24 pages, 13907 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Effects of Different Curing Methods on the Adhesion Strength of Single-Lap Joints Produced by Bonding 3D-Printed ABS and PLA Plates with Different Epoxy Adhesives

by Muhammed S. Kamer

Polymers 2025, 17(6), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17060768 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 511

Abstract

When bonding 3D-printed polymer products produced by the FFF method, it is essential to determine the appropriate adhesives and assess the resulting adhesion strength. This study focused on producing SLJ test specimens by bonding 3D-printed ABS and PLA plates using Araldite 2011, Araldite [...] Read more.

When bonding 3D-printed polymer products produced by the FFF method, it is essential to determine the appropriate adhesives and assess the resulting adhesion strength. This study focused on producing SLJ test specimens by bonding 3D-printed ABS and PLA plates using Araldite 2011, Araldite 2015-1, and Araldite 2021-1 adhesives. The bonding processes involved various curing methods: without oven (WO), 40 °C for 3 h, 40 °C for 16 h, 60 °C for 2 h, and 80 °C for 1 h. This study aimed to investigate the impact of different adhesives and curing conditions on the bonding strengths of the SLJ test specimens made from 3D-printed ABS and PLA plates. The results showed that the highest tensile strength and elongation at break values for both the ABS and PLA SLJs were achieved in specimens cured at 80 °C for 1 h, irrespective of the adhesive used. Specifically, the maximum tensile force values for the ABS SLJs ranged from 1386.26 N to 1743.98 N, while for the PLA SLJs, the values ranged from 2690.48 N to 3374.77 N. Additionally, the elongation at break values for the ABS SLJs varied from 2.463 mm to 3.485 mm, and for the PLA SLJs, they ranged from 3.260 mm to 4.300 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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18 pages, 5277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Influence of Manufacturing on Filament Production and Its Impact on Additive Manufactured Structures

by Mohamed Refat, Robert Maertens, Patrick Weiss, Frank Henning, Volker Schulze and Wilfried V. Liebig

Polymers 2025, 17(5), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050651 - 28 Feb 2025

Viewed by 716

Abstract

In this study, the effect of various parameters of a single screw extruder on the rheology and mechanical properties of a polylactic acid (PLA) filament with a 1.75 mm diameter was investigated. The barrel temperature, nozzle and cooling bath temperature, screw speed, nozzle [...] Read more.

In this study, the effect of various parameters of a single screw extruder on the rheology and mechanical properties of a polylactic acid (PLA) filament with a 1.75 mm diameter was investigated. The barrel temperature, nozzle and cooling bath temperature, screw speed, nozzle diameter, water bath length, and distance to the nozzle were the process variables. A Taguchi experimental design was implemented using an L8 orthogonal matrix with seven factors and two levels, and their influence on roundness and diameter were evaluated. Among the various processing parameters, the temperature of the cooling bath affected the roundness the most. The mechanical properties and surface roughness of the PLA filament were examined using a tensile test and nanofocus optical system, respectively. Moreover, to assess the filament’s reliability and investigate its behavior further, the filament was used to print 0° plates, and then dog-bone samples were cut from them to evaluate the mechanical properties of the printed specimens. Finally, the results indicate that improved-roundness filaments of 0.004 mm can lead to enhanced mechanical properties in 3D-printed samples with 3.54 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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18 pages, 8249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examining the Flexural Behavior of Thermoformed 3D-Printed Wrist–Hand Orthoses: Role of Material, Infill Density, and Wear Conditions

by Daniel Vlăsceanu, Diana Popescu, Florin Baciu and Constantin Stochioiu

Polymers 2024, 16(16), 2359; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162359 - 20 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1966

Abstract

This paper examined the mechanical properties of wrist–hand orthoses made from polylactic acid (PLA) and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), produced through material extrusion with infill densities of 55% and 80%. These orthoses, commonly prescribed for wrist injuries, were 3D-printed flat and subsequently thermoformed [...] Read more.

This paper examined the mechanical properties of wrist–hand orthoses made from polylactic acid (PLA) and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), produced through material extrusion with infill densities of 55% and 80%. These orthoses, commonly prescribed for wrist injuries, were 3D-printed flat and subsequently thermoformed to fit the user’s hand. Experimental and numerical analyses assessed their mechanical resistance to flexion after typical wear conditions, including moisture and long-term aging, as well as their moldability. Digital Imaging Correlation investigations were performed on PLA and PETG specimens for determining the characteristics required for running numerical analysis of the mechanical behavior of the orthoses. The results indicated that even the orthoses with the lower infill density maintained suitable rigidity for wrist immobilization, despite a decrease in their mechanical properties after over one year of shelf life. PLA orthoses with 55% infill density failed at a mean load of 336 N (before aging) and 215 N (after aging), while PETG orthoses did not break during tests. Interestingly, PLA and PETG orthoses with 55% infill density were less influenced by aging compared to their 80% density counterparts. Additionally, moisture and aging affected the PLA orthoses more, with thermoforming, ongoing curing, and stress relaxation as possible explanations related to PETG behavior. Both materials proved viable for daily use, with PETG offering better flexural resistance but posing greater thermoforming challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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13 pages, 35212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Mechanical Properties and Evaluation of Fatigue Behavior of Selective Laser Sintered Polyamide-12 Components

by David Sommer, Henry Stockfleet and Ralf Hellmann

Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1366; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101366 - 10 May 2024

Viewed by 1255

Abstract

In this paper, a comprehensive study of the mechanical properties of selective laser sintered polyamide components is presented, for various different process parameters as well as environmental testing conditions. For the optimization of the static and dynamic mechanical load behavior, different process parameters, [...] Read more.

In this paper, a comprehensive study of the mechanical properties of selective laser sintered polyamide components is presented, for various different process parameters as well as environmental testing conditions. For the optimization of the static and dynamic mechanical load behavior, different process parameters, e.g., laser power, scan speed, and build temperature, were varied, defining an optimal parameter combination. First, the influence of the different process parameters was tested, leading to a constant energy density for different combinations. Due to similarities in mechanical load behavior, the energy density was identified as a decisive factor, mostly independent of the input parameters. Thus, secondly, the energy density was varied by the different parameters, exhibiting large differences for all levels of fatigue behavior. An optimal parameter combination of 18 W for the laser power and a scan speed of 2666 mm/s was determined, as a higher energy density led to the best results in static and dynamic testing. According to this, the variation in build temperature was investigated, leading to improvements in tensile strength and fatigue strength at higher build temperatures. Furthermore, different ambient temperatures during testing were evaluated, as the temperature-dependent behavior of polymers is of high importance for industrial applications. An increased ambient temperature as well as active cooling during testing was examined, having a significant impact on the high cycle fatigue regime and on the endurance limit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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16 pages, 19967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Empowering Rehabilitation: Design and Structural Analysis of a Low-Cost 3D-Printed Smart Orthosis

by Florin Popișter, Mihai Dragomir, Paul Ciudin and Horea Ștefan Goia

Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101303 - 7 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2310

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing of polymer materials encompasses a wide range of applications and innovations. Polymer-based 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has gained significant attention due to its versatility, cost-effectiveness, and potential to revolutionize various industries. The current paper focuses on obtaining [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing of polymer materials encompasses a wide range of applications and innovations. Polymer-based 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has gained significant attention due to its versatility, cost-effectiveness, and potential to revolutionize various industries. The current paper focuses on obtaining a durable low-cost rehabilitation knee orthosis. Researchers propose that the entire structure should be obtained using modern equipment within the additive manufacturing domain—3D printing. The researchers focus on determining, through a 3D analysis of the entire 3D model assembly, which parts present a high degree of stress when a kinematic simulation is developed. The entire 3D model of the orthosis starts based on the result obtained from a 3D scanning of the knee joint of a patient, providing a precise fixation, and allowing for direct personalization. Based on the results and identification of the critical parts, there will be used different materials and a combination of 3D printing strategies to validate the physical model of the entire orthosis. For the manufacturing process, the researchers use two types of low-cost fused filament fabrication (FFF), which are easy to find on the worldwide market. The motivation for manufacturing the entire assembly using 3D printing techniques is the short time in which complex shapes can be obtained, which is relevant for the present study. The main purpose of the present research is to advance orthotic technology by developing an innovative knee brace made of 3D-printed polymers that are designed to be lightweight, easy-to-use, and provide comfort and functionality to patients during the rehabilitation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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Graphical abstract

21 pages, 6603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Environment-Friendly and Sustainable Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Constructed Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS)-Based Gyroid Structures

by Syed Saarim Razi, Salman Pervaiz, Rahmat Agung Susantyoko and Mozah Alyammahi

Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081175 - 22 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2659

Abstract

The demand for robust yet lightweight materials has exponentially increased in several engineering applications. Additive manufacturing and 3D printing technology have the ability to meet this demand at a fraction of the cost compared with traditional manufacturing techniques. By using the fused deposition [...] Read more.

The demand for robust yet lightweight materials has exponentially increased in several engineering applications. Additive manufacturing and 3D printing technology have the ability to meet this demand at a fraction of the cost compared with traditional manufacturing techniques. By using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) or fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique, objects can be 3D-printed with complex designs and patterns using cost-effective, biodegradable, and sustainable thermoplastic polymer filaments such as polylactic acid (PLA). This study aims to provide results to guide users in selecting the optimal printing and testing parameters for additively manufactured/3D-printed components. This study was designed using the Taguchi method and grey relational analysis. Compressive test results on nine similarly patterned samples suggest that cuboid gyroid-structured samples perform the best under compression and retain more mechanical strength than the other tested triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures. A printing speed of 40 mm/s, relative density of 60%, and cell size of 3.17 mm were the best choice of input parameters within the tested ranges to provide the optimal performance of a sample that experiences greater force or energy to compress until failure. The ninth experiment on the above-mentioned conditions improved the yield strength by 16.9%, the compression modulus by 34.8%, and energy absorption by 29.5% when compared with the second-best performance, which was obtained in the third experiment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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12 pages, 3460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strength and Surface Characteristics of 3D-Printed Resin Crowns for the Primary Molars

by Soyoung Park, Wontak Cho, Hyeonjong Lee, Jihyeon Bae, Taesung Jeong, Jungbo Huh and Jonghyun Shin

Polymers 2023, 15(21), 4241; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15214241 - 27 Oct 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3797

Abstract

Some resin polymers available for three-dimensional (3D) printing are slightly elastic, which may be advantageous when used for full crown coverage of the primary teeth. This study was performed to evaluate the mechanical properties of two types of 3D-printed resin crowns in terms [...] Read more.

Some resin polymers available for three-dimensional (3D) printing are slightly elastic, which may be advantageous when used for full crown coverage of the primary teeth. This study was performed to evaluate the mechanical properties of two types of 3D-printed resin crowns in terms of strength and surface characteristics. Polymer resins used for temporary crowns (TCs) and temporary flexible dentures (TFDs) were tested. Digitally designed crowns with different thicknesses (0.4 and 0.6 mm) were 3D-printed. Milled zirconia crowns were used as the control. The static and dynamic fracture loads of the crowns were measured. The crown surface was evaluated using scanning electron microscopy. The average strength did not differ between the types of crowns. The differences between the dynamic and static fracture loads were insignificant. In the TC group, thicker crowns showed lower strength both under static and dynamic loads. After thermomechanical loading, microcracks and dropouts of macrofillers were detected on the surface of all types of resin crowns. The deposition of abraded debris occurred more in the TFD group. The 3D-printed resin crowns were thought to endure biting forces in children. However, some limitations of the material itself should be improved for consideration as a new treatment option in pediatric dentistry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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17 pages, 2398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation and Prediction of Tensile, Flexural, and Compressive Properties of Tough PLA Material Using Definitive Screening Design

by Abdulsalam A. Al-Tamimi, Adi Pandžić and Edin Kadrić

Polymers 2023, 15(20), 4169; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15204169 - 20 Oct 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2379

Abstract

The material extrusion fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique has become a widely used technique that enables the production of complex parts for various applications. To overcome limitations of PLA material such as low impact toughness, commercially available materials such as UltiMaker Tough PLA [...] Read more.

The material extrusion fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique has become a widely used technique that enables the production of complex parts for various applications. To overcome limitations of PLA material such as low impact toughness, commercially available materials such as UltiMaker Tough PLA were produced to improve the parent PLA material that can be widely applied in many engineering applications. In this study, 3D-printed parts (test specimens) considering six different printing parameters (i.e., layer height, wall thickness, infill density, build plate temperature, printing speed, and printing temperature) are experimentally investigated to understand their impact on the mechanical properties of Tough PLA material. Three different standardized tests of tensile, flexural, and compressive properties were conducted to determine the maximum force and Young’s modulus. These six properties were used as responses in a design of experiment, definitive screening design (DSD), to build six regression models. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is performed to evaluate the effects of each of the six printing parameters on Tough PLA mechanical properties. It is shown that all regression models are statistically significant (

p < 0.05

) with high values of adjusted and predicted

R^{2}

. Conducted confirmation tests resulted in low relative errors between experimental and predicted data, indicating that the developed models are adequately accurate and reliable for the prediction of tensile, flexural, and compressive properties of Tough PLA material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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28 pages, 8456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing Surface Roughness Variations in Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Nylon Carbon Fiber Composites

by Muhammad Abas, Mohammed Al Awadh, Tufail Habib and Sahar Noor

Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3633; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173633 - 1 Sep 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3433

Abstract

In recent years, fused deposition modeling (FDM) based on material extrusion additive manufacturing technology has become widely accepted as a cost-effective method for fabricating engineering components with net-shapes. However, the limited exploration of the influence of FDM process parameters on surface roughness parameters, [...] Read more.

In recent years, fused deposition modeling (FDM) based on material extrusion additive manufacturing technology has become widely accepted as a cost-effective method for fabricating engineering components with net-shapes. However, the limited exploration of the influence of FDM process parameters on surface roughness parameters, i.e., Ra (average surface roughness), Rq (root mean square surface roughness), and Rz (maximum height of the profile) across different sides (bottom, top, and walls) poses a challenge for the fabrication of functional parts. This research aims to bridge the knowledge gap by analyzing surface roughness under various process parameters and optimizing it for nylon carbon fiber printed parts. A definitive screening design (DSD) was employed for experimental runs. The Pareto chart highlighted the significant effects of layer height, part orientation, and infill density on all surface roughness parameters and respective sides. The surface morphology was analyzed through optical microscopy. Multi-response optimization was performed using an integrated approach of composited desirability function and entropy. The findings of the present study hold significant industrial applications, enhancing the quality and performance of 3D printed parts. From intricate prototypes to durable automotive components, the optimized surfaces contribute to production of functional and visually appealing products across various sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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23 pages, 6291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moisture Sorption and Degradation of Polymer Filaments Used in 3D Printing

by Andrey Aniskevich, Olga Bulderberga and Leons Stankevics

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2600; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122600 - 7 Jun 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2707

Abstract

Experimental research of the moisture sorption process of 12 typical filaments used for FFF was performed in atmospheres with a relative humidity from 16 to 97% at room temperature. Materials with high moisture sorption capacity were revealed. Fick’s diffusion model was applied to [...] Read more.

Experimental research of the moisture sorption process of 12 typical filaments used for FFF was performed in atmospheres with a relative humidity from 16 to 97% at room temperature. Materials with high moisture sorption capacity were revealed. Fick’s diffusion model was applied to all tested materials, and a set of sorption parameters was found. The solution of Fick’s second equation for the two-dimensional cylinder was obtained in series form. Moisture sorption isotherms were obtained and classified. Moisture diffusivity dependence on relative humidity was evaluated. The diffusion coefficient was independent of the relative humidity of the atmosphere for six materials. It essentially decreased for four materials and grew for the other two. Swelling strain changed linearly with the moisture content of the materials and reached up to 0.5% for some of them. The degree of degradation of the elastic modulus and the strength of the filaments due to moisture absorption were estimated. All tested materials were classified as having a low (changes ca. 2–4% or less), moderate (5–9%), or high sensitivity to water (more than 10%) by their reduction in mechanical properties. This reduction in stiffness and strength with absorbed moisture should be considered for responsible applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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17 pages, 9834 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of 3D Printing Process Parameters and Heat Treatment Conditions on the Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of PEEK Parts

by Honglei Zhen, Bin Zhao, Long Quan and Junyu Fu

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2209; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092209 - 6 May 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4616

Abstract

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) processed Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) materials are widely used in aerospace, automobile, biomedical, and electronics industries and other industries due to their excellent mechanical properties, thermal properties, chemical resistance, wear resistance, and biocompatibility, etc. However, the manufacture of PEEK materials and [...] Read more.

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) processed Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) materials are widely used in aerospace, automobile, biomedical, and electronics industries and other industries due to their excellent mechanical properties, thermal properties, chemical resistance, wear resistance, and biocompatibility, etc. However, the manufacture of PEEK materials and parts utilizing the FDM process faces the challenge of fine-tuning a list of process parameters and heat treatment conditions to reach the best-suiting mechanical properties and microstructures. It is non-trivial to make the selection only according to theoretical analysis while counting on a vast number of experiments is the general situation. Therefore, in this paper, the extrusion rate, filling angle, and printing orientation are investigated to adjust the mechanical properties of 3D-printed PEEK parts; then, a variety of heat treatment conditions were applied to tune the crystallinity and strength. The results show that the best mechanical performance is achieved at 1.0 times the extrusion rate, varied angle cross-fillings with ±10° intervals, and vertical printing. Horizontal printing performs better with reduced warpage. Additionally, both crystallinity and mechanical properties are significantly improved after heat treatment, and the best state is achieved after holding at 300 °C for 2 h. The resulting tensile strength is close to 80% of the strength of injection-molded PEEK parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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14 pages, 3510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Post-Printing Cooling Conditions on the Properties of ULTEM Printed Parts

by Tatjana Glaskova-Kuzmina, Didzis Dejus, Jānis Jātnieks, Andrey Aniskevich, Jevgenijs Sevcenko, Anatolijs Sarakovskis and Aleksejs Zolotarjovs

Polymers 2023, 15(2), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020324 - 8 Jan 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2370

Abstract

This paper aimed to estimate the effect of post-printing cooling conditions on the tensile and thermophysical properties of ULTEM^® 9085 printed parts processed by fused deposition modeling (FDM). Three different cooling conditions were applied after printing Ultem samples: from 180 °C to [...] Read more.

This paper aimed to estimate the effect of post-printing cooling conditions on the tensile and thermophysical properties of ULTEM^® 9085 printed parts processed by fused deposition modeling (FDM). Three different cooling conditions were applied after printing Ultem samples: from 180 °C to room temperature (RT) for 4 h in the printer (P), rapid removal from the printer and cooling from 200 °C to RT for 4 h in the oven (O), and cooling at RT (R). Tensile tests and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) were carried out on samples printed in three orthogonal planes to investigate the effect of the post-printing cooling conditions on their mechanical and thermophysical properties. Optical microscopy was employed to relate the corresponding macrostructure to the mechanical performance of the material. The results obtained showed almost no difference between samples cooled either in the printer or oven and a notable difference for samples cooled at room temperature. Moreover, the lowest mechanical performance and sensitivity to the thermal cooling conditions were defined for the Z printing direction due to anisotropic nature of FDM and debonding among layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)

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